Mesoamerica – The Pull Of The Land

Mexico’s Independence from Spain — Mike Ashe

August 3, 2022August 3, 2022 Richard Barnes

I much appreciate these guest posts by Mike Ashe. We Americans are often accused — sometimes unfairly, sometimes fairly — of being somewhat insular. I have always been impressed meeting folks from South America, Central America, the Caribbean, and Mexico, who possess a knowledge of the United States — sometimes incomplete, sometimes imperfect, but that, nevertheless, often far surpasses our knowledge of their lands.

Thank you, Mike

Part I

Mexico’s Independence from Spain

I always wondered how a small European Country could rule over vast lands in Mesoamerica for three centuries.

In the case of New Spain, the conquest of the Aztecs preserved the colonization of Mesoamerica. The principal reason to invade was to secure a large population of somewhat docile/sedentary people. Its principal architect and leader was Hernando Cortes; it would be very doubtful if anyone else would have been that successful. Cortes was a driven person for the Crown but also for himself.

In the early 16^th century and pre-industrial revolution, a large labor force was a tremendous asset for the Crown. The population in the central valleys were over 19 million; as a frame of reference Europe’s population was 61 million and Spain’s was almost 10 million, but after expelling the Jews and Moriscos it fell to 7.5 million. The Inca empire was the only population that was comparable to New Spain. The Incas were a very technologically advanced culture but unfortunately with no written language like the Aztecs.

The consolidation of the central valleys (present day states of Mexico State, Mexico City, Morelos, Puebla, Tlaxcala and Veracruz) was ultimately the key to longevity in New Spain. Any attempts to venture out of that central region proved to be difficult and the risk reward was not there. There was an attempt to conquer the Mayan controlled area south of Vera Cruz but the oppressive heat and the ferocity of the Mayans resulted in a Spanish retreat and complete abandonment of any future plans of conquest.

Northern Mexico was arid with a population of aggressive indigenous people (The Chichimecas-Zacatecos); there was no plan to colonize the north. That changed in the mid-16^th century when vast deposits of silver were discovered in Zacatecas (located in the Central Mexican Plateau). When the Spaniards moved in, they were met with fierce opposition from a formidable Zacateco warrior culture.

The Chichimeca war proved to be very costly and lasted 40 years. The Zacatecos were smart and fierce fighters with weaponry that could pierce Spanish armor. Like the present-day special forces, they were agile and physically fit, opposing a sedentary Spanish and indigenous ally force. The fighting finally ended through Catholic evangelism from the Catholic church.

The prospects of similar encounters with the Apache and Comanche tamed down any significant move further into the north.

[For those interested in learning further about the pacification of the fierce nations in the north of Mexico, I recommend Mexico’s Miguel Caldera by Philip Wayne Powell. Excellent history with much reliance on primary sources — RMB]

Decolonization of the Americas/Philippines

The decolonization of the Americas began with The American Revolutionary war 1775-1783. The Continental forces fought against primarily against British and Hessians (30,000 German mercenaries forces) with some assistance from colonial loyalists. The Continental forces were interestingly supported by Spain and France against their common enemy the British. Prelude to war included disputes between Royal Governors (Viceroys) and the colonial legislatures in each of the thirteen colonies. Self-rule was the overriding issue for war.

New Spain, all the Spanish Colonies in South America, and Brazil began decolonization in 1808-1825 triggered by Napoleon’s conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. Unlike the American Revolution the combatants were mainly internal (Loyalist vs Insurgents) with only minimal military support from Spain or Portugal.

The war in Mexico was between the Peninsulares and Creoles with some but not much assistance from Spanish forces. The revolutionary/liberator leaders include Iturbide (Mexico) Bolivar (Venezuela, Colombia), San Martin (Argentina, Ecuador, Peru), O’Higgins of Chile, Dom Pedro (Brazil), and Manuela Saenz (Ecuador, Colombia).

However, decolonization was not really completed until the Spanish American War in the late nineteenth century.

The common belief through the years has been that the war started with the mysterious sinking of the US battleship (Maine) in Havana Harbor in 1898. At the time folklore also centered around the roughriders (including Teddy Roosevelt) charging up San Juan Hill to victory. Actually, the war was fought on two fronts: the Philippines and Cuba. The first shot was not fired in Cuba but in the Philippines when Admiral Dewey entered Manila Bay and destroyed the Spanish fleet.

The naval operation was repeated in Cuba with the same results. With their naval forces destroyed and its army stranded, Spain was forced to accept surrender under the US president’s terms. The war was a mostly a naval operation, not a ground war.

Terms of surrender included freedom for Cuba and cession of Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States, and the sale of the Philippines to the US for $20 Million.

A second revolt, this time against the US occupiers resulted in the Philippine American war that lasted three years (1899-1902). The war was bloody, with 20,000 Filipino fighters and 4,200 American soldiers killed along with 200,000 civilian deaths. In 1935 the Commonwealth of the Philippines was established and full Independence was granted in July 4, 1946. This was mostly a ground operation.

[For those interested in learning further about this period, a readable history which seeks to be even-handed as possible is Ivan Musicant’s Empire by Default: The Spanish-American War and the Dawn of the American Century — RMB]

Decolonization of New Spain

In 1803 Father Miguel Hidalgo Grito de Dolores lit the fuse for Independence from Spain in 1824 known as the First Mexican Republic with a total population of 6 and ½ million living in 31 states.

The First Emperor of Mexico

The Treaty of Cordoba ended New Spain dependence on Spanish rule in 1821 and established Augustin Cosme Damian y Iturbide as “The First Emperor of Mexico”. Coronated in 1822, he served only one year as emperor. Iturbide’s was the only former Spanish colony that established a monarchy after gaining independence.

The first Mexican monarchy reign was short lived when after dissolving congress and operating with a depleted treasury a revolt broke out which resulted in the loss of support of the army. After a revolt he reconvened congress and offered his abdication. A provisional government was appointed which ended the first Mexican Monarch.

In 1824 Iturbide returned from exile in England to Mexico and was arrested and executed by firing squad.

[His words before the firing squad were “Mexicans! In the very act of my death, I recommend to you the love to the fatherland, and the observance to our religion, for it shall lead you to glory. I die having come here to help you, and I die merrily, for I die amongst you. I die with honor, not as a traitor; I do not leave this stain on my children and my legacy. I am not a traitor, no.” — RMB]

While Emperor, Mexico territory included California and all of Central America. After the abdication the Central American provinces formed the Republic of Central America with only Chiapas remaining part of Mexico.

Next: Generals and More Generals — One Constant Is the Army’s Involvement in Mexico’s Politics in the 19th and 20th Centuries.

For those interested in learning more about this critical period, a good place to start.

Theodore (“Teddy”) Roosevelt and his Rough Riders, Cuba, 1898

For those interested in learning more about Mexico’s policies and successes in the north, hardly a better place to start than with Philip Wayne Powell.

Mexico’s Turbulent History — Part I: Human Migration

July 12, 2022July 12, 2022 Richard Barnes

My friend, Mike Ashe, has visited and lived in Mexico and has a keen interest in that great country. I happily took him up on his offer to share some of his knowledge and observations, which we will find of interest and of help to our understanding not only of Mexico but of all of Latin America — RMB.

Human Migration into Mesoamerica (Mexico and Central America) — Mike Ashe

Throughout human and animal history migration has always been the cornerstone of survival (following the food source). There are several theories positing one, two, or even three major Asian migrations during the ice age following game across the frozen Bering Sea.

Mexico was first populated more than 13,000 years ago by complex indigenous civilizations. The great Aztec empire was preceded by advanced civilizations including the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, and Maya

The first known society (Olmec), settled on the Gulf Coast near what is now Veracruz.

Peopling included The Olmecs (southern Mexico), the Aztec (Mexica), Toltec, and Chichimec in the Valley of Mexico. Historically the northern and Baja regions of Mexico have historically had low populations of indigenous people including the colorful Tarahumaras, Yaquis, and Mayos.

The Tarahumaras (those who walk well) originally inhabited much of current state of Chihuahua but retreated to the high Sierra Madre Occidental and the Barranca de Cobre (Copper Canyon) region. The Tarahumaras currently numbering 70,000, are renowned runners (without tiring) and still follow the traditional lifestyle, living in caves and cliff overhangs). Nominally Roman Catholic their mythology is pagan and Christian. As a side, the Copper Canyon is four times the size of the Grand Canyon.

Where did the country’s name come from?

Several historical theories believe that the name Mexico has its origin in the Nahuatl language spoken by the Aztec (Place of the Mexica) when Aztec nomadic tribes entered the Valley of Mexico.

Anahuac is another Nahuatl (close to the water) name referring to the altiplano lake in Tenochtitlan, formerly the capital of the Aztec empire, now Mexico City.

The Nahuatl language is dying out but is still spoken by many in the Veracruz area.

My mother would often say that the Mexican men in northern Mexico were larger than the men in the Altiplano and in the Maya region. Perhaps an answer by scientistic evidence that the northern region food source included a greater amount of animal protein from hunting and gathering, while the south and central regions lived a more sedentary life and at a greater rate of famine and disease. What is interesting is that the female stature did not vary at all between regions.

One common fact in ancient times is that life expectancy was low. The age of 15 was an important date since life expectancy ranged between 13 and 29 years of additional life with death coming between 28-44 on average. A subsistence life style along with the need for humans to build and move heavy burdens was very stressful on the bodies of the ancients. Mortality was very high; although I do not know how that compared to other parts of the world at that time, most likely was comparable.

With a low life expectancy there was the stress of maintaining and growing a population females had to be married before the age of 15 and 19 for males. Coupling was a challenge in areas of low population and not until agriculture improved, which led to towns and cities, did this condition change.

Rite of passage for girls (end of puberty and the initiation into young womanhood, called the Quinceañera, a Spanish culture/Roman Catholic tradition, was at 15 years of age). Its origin is not clear but the Aztecs and Mayans also had similar initiation ceremonies for girls.

The Aztec empire in the 1500’s was the most powerful Mesoamerican kingdom of all times. Civilizations like the Olmec, Maya, Aztec, and Inca all built pyramids to house their deities as well as burial chambers for their rulers. In Teotihuacan Mexico there are two large pyramids “The Pyramids of the Sun and Moon”. The Pyramid of the Sun is believed to have been constructed in 200AD and is one of the largest in Mesoamerica. Most travelers to Mexico believe that the great pyramids of Teotihuacan were built by the Aztecs; actually the builders most likely were the Teotihuacan. We used to climb both pyramids but understand it is now roped off to visitors.

In 1500 the Population of the Tenochtitlan (built on two islands on Lake Texcoco) was 200,000 comparable to the two largest cities in Europe: Naples and Paris. The total Aztec population in 1520 is estimated at 5-6 million.

When one jumps forward to modern times the countries’ Core Region occupied by the ancients still remains and includes; Mexico City, Puebla, Guadalajara, Veracruz, Leon, Puerto Vallarta, and Manzanillo

Living in Mexico City we would always end up in Teotihuacan (City of the Gods) and always learn something new there.

My brother-in-law, Chuy, and Cristy, my girlfriend at the time and later my wife, and I visited Cholula a Mayan Pyramid near Puebla. We were fortunate to be able to go inside some rather long/narrow tunnels where the archeologists/paleontologist were working. The National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City houses the greatest Mesoamerican artifacts in the world and represents the country’s commitment to honoring its ancestral past. To this date not much is known about this pyramid since excavation ended about the time of our visit there. One thing is for sure it is the largest pyramid in the world including the great pyramid of Giza in Egypt.

Today the Cholula pyramid at first glance looks like a natural hill. The Iglesia de Nuestra Senora de Remedios a major Roman Catholic pilgrimage destination, designated as a colonial monument, sits on top of it. It is doubtful that the pyramid will ever be excavated and restored due to the location of the Iglesia.

In about 2005 Cristy, our two oldest grandkids, and I visited her sister Toni in Merida, Yucatan. While in Merida we visited Chichen Itza built by the Mayans. El Castillo is the largest and most famous pyramid there. We climbed one of the pyramids but I do not remember which one. The site is by far the most interesting of all the ancient sites that we have visited. It includes the Great Ball Court, the Temple of the Warriors and the Sacred Cenote (not an attractive Cenote).

As a side, the Yucatan is full of Cenotes. They are deep-water sinkholes that are fed by rain and underground rivers. In ancient times the Mayan source of fresh water were the Cenotes. In modern times they have become a popular tourist destination for swimming, snorkeling, and diving. They are amazingly clear. Toni’s daughters are avid Cenotes explorers.

We cannot leave the ancient world without looking at the Aztecs’ polytheistic religion and its demands on its people, including human sacrifices to satisfy their hundreds of gods but primarily four main gods: 1) Tlaloc (god of rain) 2) Huitzilopochtli (god of war and sun 3) Quetzalcoatl (most famous Aztec god means feathered serpent) god of civilization and 4) Tezcatlipoca (god of destiny).

All four gods were the children of Ometecuhtli. Some of these gods like Tlaloc can be traced back to the Olmec and Mayan civilization. The child god Quetzalcoatl represents the good and his brother Tezcatlipoca not so good, as some scholars believe.

The gods were depicted in very colorful images and are displayed in the Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City. There were both male and female gods; each were believed to control all aspects of human life including mainly the weather, agriculture, fertility, and war.

Tlamacazqui were the Aztec priests; they were responsible to please the gods in ceremonies, offerings, and sacrifices. Many scholars believe that during troubled times sacrifices were performed to honor the gods. Priests would open the chest of the victim/volunteer and offer the beating heart to the gods. Men women and children were all sacrificed based on which gods needed to be pleased. Their skulls were displayed in the temples as trophies to the gods. Recent DNA testing shows that the majority of those sacrificed were enemy soldiers or slaves. There are some wild estimates of the number of sacrifices per year which cannot be confirmed. The Spanish accounts served as the basis for many estimates but most seem exaggerated to many scholars.

Next: The Conquest of Mexico