Mexico – Page 2 – The Pull Of The Land

The Mexican Revolution 1910 – 1920

August 26, 2022August 26, 2022 Richard Barnes

[This is the second of a 4-part post: Prologue and Beginning; Civil War and Ending; Scorecard; US Interventions. The reader will recognize several names from movies, novels, or other sources, but Mike manages to put them in at least a general context which enhances our understanding and, if interested, encourages further study. Regardless of the level of interest, Americans are well-advised to be more cognizant of the major events of our neighbor to the south — RMB]

Civil War and Ending — Mike Ashe

The Civil War Breaks Out

Francisco Madero was assassinated by the commander of Los Federales (federal troops) Victoriano Huerta in 1913. Huerta assumed power and dissolved the congress. At the same time, Jose Venustiano Carranza (a shrewd Politician) issued the Plan de Guadalupe to oust Huerta. His plan called for agrarian reform (unlike Zapata’s Plan de Ayala which was specific to the state of Morelos) and created communally held village lands called “ejidos” for all of Mexico. At the same time, he became the leader of the Northern Coalition (Alvaro Obregón and Pancho Villa).

[One of the effects of the violent civil war that broke out in Mexico was the thousands of refugees fleeing north across the border. This was a major issue when Woodrow Wilson took office in 1913 — RMB]

In 1914 Woodrow Wilson sent Marines to Vera Cruz and before entering the port city bombarded it — resulting in great numbers of civilian deaths, as well as that of young naval academy cadets, to support the revolutionaries. This tipped the scale and led to victories by revolutionary troops and Huerta resigned and left the country. The US exited Mexico City leaving behind valuable military hardware for Carranza whom Wilson supported.

[Madero’s “liberal” philosophy was to upend the social order in Mexico by destroying the landed aristocracy and the Roman Catholic church, thereby sowing the seeds which eventuated in the terrible Cristeros War a decade after his death. His politics bore constitutional fruit in 1916 (see below). After his assassination, Wilson refused to recognize Huerta’s government and relations deteriorated between Mexico and the United States, especially after Veracruz — RMB]

Political infighting and shifting alliances/coalitions between Obregon, Villa, Zapata, and Carranza led to the Convention of the revolutionary generals in Aguascalientes (north of Mexico City). The convention was a failure resulting in more civil war.

Villa and Zapata appealed to the peasant population but not to the urban workers. Carranza used this and his strong stance against the US occupation of Vera Cruz and Mexico City to political advantage.

His armies also held strategic positions such as the Ports of Vera Cruz, Port of Tampico, Mexico City, and the oil fields. Carranza defeated the northern armies and the Zapatistas in 1915.

Once an ally of the unions, he feared their continued strength worrying about the survival of capitalism with the number of labor strikes increasing. He first tried to negotiate with the workers but a series of general strikes forced him to use his troops to suppress their movement. In 1916 the Constitutional army along with foreign investors forcibly disbanded the Casa de Obrero Mundial and defeated the working-class revolution.

Obregon became Carranza’s minister of war.

During the presidency of Porfirio Diaz, foreign mining companies received generous concessions; however, Carranza issued a decree to return the wealth of oil and coal to the Mexican people, raised taxes, and removed the diplomatic recourse for mining companies. These policies were opposed by the US, but she did recognize Carranza as president.

[The stated purpose of Carranza’s nationalizations was indeed to bequeath Mexico’s natural wealth to her people. However, the fruits of these policies are still evanescent to this day, when wealth is unevenly distributed, much as it was at the end of Porfirio Diaz’s rule — RMB]

In 1916 a constitutional convention was held in Queretaro with 85 conservatives and 132 radicals. The radicals promoted widespread labor reform and Articles 3 and 130 were strongly anticlerical; the Roman Catholic Church was denied recognition as a legal entity, priests were denied rights and subject to public registration; religious education was forbidden, public religious ritual outside the church were forbidden, and all churches were property of the nation. The position of Vice President was eliminated, and Carranza became president in 1917.

[In March 1916, Villa raided Columbus, New Mexico, killing 20 Americans. Despite the demands of outraged senators, Wilson did not declare war on Mexico, although he did order Brigadier General John J. Pershing deep into Mexico in a fruitless mission to capture Villa. Wilson ran for reelection in 1916 on the slogan, “He kept us out of war”, meaning war with Mexico, and, by implication, the then raging Great War, which we nevertheless entered in 1917 — RMB]

Fighting continued against Carranza including Emiliano Zapata in the Morelos mountains, Porfirio Diaz supporters active in Vera Cruz, and Pancho Villa active in Chihuahua. Obregon retired to his ranch in Sonora and Carranza ordered the assassination of Zapata in 1919.

Carranza remained neutral during World War I mainly due to anti-American sentiment resulting from interventions and invasions. This was a smart move by Carranza keeping German Companies operating and selling oil to the British to fuel their warships against the Germans.

In 1920 Carranza decided against running for president again but failed to promote Alvaro Obregon as his successor. Obregon and his allies, Sonora generals (Plutarco Calles and Adolfo de la Huerta), issued the Plan de Agua Prieta. It repudiated the Carranza government and renewed the Revolution.

Ending of the Revolution

A Carranza assassination attempt failed which prompted Obregon to bring his army to Mexico City. Carranza fled to Vera Cruz where he was assassinated on May 21, 1920. The telegram ordering his death was from Colonel Lazaro Cardenas, a future president of Mexico.

There were 30,000 mourners at his funeral cortege. He was buried among ordinary Mexicans in a third-class section of the cemetery. His heart was kept by the family and later reunited with his body in 1942 at the Monument to the Revolution.

Carranza’s death marked the end of the Mexican Revolution.

Cartoon published in the United States in 1920 when Carranza was ousted. Unfortunately many Americans, reflecting Woodrow Wilson’s antagonisms (to put it charitably), viewed the unfortunate revolutionary fervors in Mexico as simply that of a people who did not know how to govern themselves, thereby obviating centuries of self-rule under Spain and obscuring the philosophical realities, which were actually French Revolutionary dogmas. The very same dogmas which today threaten the United States.

The reality of the Mexican Revolution was not cartoonish at all

Victoriano Huerta (1854-1916, died in jail in El Paso, Texas)

General Pancho Villa (1878-1923 — assassinated). Northern Alliance, or the Army of the North

Pancho Villa and General John J. Pershing, Fort Bliss, El Paso, Texas, 1914

The charismatic Emiliano Zapata, General of the Southern Army in Morelos (1879-1919, assassinated)

President Jose Venustiano Carranza (1859-1920, assassinated)

Alvaro Obregon, General of the North and President of Mexico (1880-1928, assassinated)

The Mexican Revolution 1910 – 1920 — Mike Ashe

August 23, 2022August 23, 2022 Richard Barnes

[Mike’s summary of the Mexican Revolution is a needful overview of this history which continues to reverberate not only in Mexico, but here in the United States as well. Madero’s as well as Wilson’s perfidy are with us still. Our neighbors to the south have suffered much and it is important that we be at least somewhat conversant with their story.]

[This will be a 4-part post: Prologue and Beginning; Civil War and Ending; Scorecard; US Interventions. Each is worth your time — RMB]

The Mexican Revolution 1910-1920 – Part 1 — Mike Ashe

Prologue

Historians write that the defining event of modern Mexican history was the Revolution. Was it?

I think to answer that question one has to examine its cost in human lives, and how did it truly advance the interests of the Mexican people. The stated motives for waging an internal conflict were to fight for social reform: “La tierra es para el que trabaja” (the land is for those who work it) or “Tierra y Libertad” (Land and Freedom).

The mottos sounded honorable, but were they achieved?

Cost in human lives of 2-3 Million, includes combatants and civilians. The suffering was horrendous. Women and girls were hidden away from the advancing armies that raped and pillaged the population. No one was safe from the scourges of war, which lived on even after the war ended; fighting continued for decades.

With all its social faults, the Porfirio Diaz economy was robust and stable, the envy of the world. That ended abruptly in 1911 and 10 years of war left the country’s economy in shambles just ahead of a world-wide depression in the late twenties. Recovery was slowed even more with unbelievable cruelty and bloodshed during the Cristeros war (300,000-600,000 casualties).

Diaz’s vision was to build an infrastructure realizing that without it the country would not prosper. Sadly, the Mexican infrastructure has never been built out to a degree that would support a country blessed with such enormous resources. I place blame on the self-serving Generals who waged and promoted endless conflicts and assassinations throughout this unfortunate period in history.

Also, in the post-revolution period conditions did not get much better with its corrupt ruling class that did little to promote the social justice which was supposedly the primary reason for ending the Porfiriato.

The one-party system (Partido Revolucionario Institucional-PRI) established by President Calles (1924-28) did little to serve the nation’s interest but rather to consolidate power in the central government. With the one-party system the president simply picked his successor (NO DRAMA). It was not until 2006 that Vicente Fox from Partido Acción Nacional-PAN) that a president was elected from another party.

As an aside — my Mexican wife (Maria Cristina de Ashe, a US Citizen since 1980) worked as a Secretary – Admin for Minera Autlan in Mexico City when I met her. The firm was a mining company (manganese ore) owned by Don Enrique Madero and his Son Enrique Jr.

The Madero’s were direct descendants of Francisco Moderno and Enrique Jr. was active in Mexican politics in the PAN. I’ve seen him on tele-mundo several times after Vicente Fox’s election.

There were several popular heroes of the revolution including Madero, Zapata, and in my opinion the unpopular Carranza would be another. Carranza was a skilled, experienced political leader; in other words, “A Statesman”. Madero and Zapata did not enrich themselves but rather died for the cause of freedom.

The other heroes are the Mexican people which I love dearly: they are hardworking, funny, committed to their savior Jesus Christ, to the Virgin of Guadalupe, and to their beloved Mexico.

I’ll leave it up to the reader to answer to the questions above.

Beginning

The Revolution was triggered by liberal intellectuals who began to challenge the Porfiriato and in late 1910 Francisco Madero (a UC Berkley – Educated intellectual) issued his Plan de San Luis Potosi from his exile in the US that called for the uprising. His plan was to establish a democratic republic and to abolish unlimited presidential terms. At the same time Emiliano Zapata (from the state of Morelos) started recruiting thousands in the south (beginning in 1909) to fight for land reform in support of El Plan de Ayala.

In May 1911 Mexican President Porfirio Diaz resigned and left the country and Francisco Madero was elected president in that same year.

[His parting words were that “Madero has unleashed the tiger; let’s see if he can tame it.” He could not, as subsequent posts will document — RMB]

Francisco Madero, “The Father of the Revolution” (1873-1913 who, like Danton, died under it)

Porfirio Díaz (1830-1915). Despite the negatives, under his stewardship Mexico prospered and was a stable country with sound money recognized around the world.

Mexico’s Turbulent History — The Porfiriato — Mike Ashe

August 16, 2022August 16, 2022 Richard Barnes

[I had the privilege of traveling a number of times to Mexico on business, and look back to my visits there with fondness and respect. Mike’s posts have served to cause me to think on Mexico and the major shadow she casts — for good or ill — over most of Latin America’s history, including Venezuela. Thank you, Mike — RMB]

The Porfiriato (1876-1911)

Prelude and setting the stage

To properly set the stage for the Porfiriato, it is necessary to understand that Mexican politics was at times a blood sport. Persecution of liberals like Diaz and Juarez by the conservative leader Santa Anna forced Diaz into the mountains of Oaxaca and becoming an insurgent there, until Santa Anna was exiled to Cuba in 1855. Juarez, more a statesman than a warrior, fled to northern Mexico and New Orleans during this civil war.

Prior to Diaz, the government instability was very much the norm during the 19^th century especially at the presidential level. It was so bad that at times there were three presidents in office at the same time. The first president, Guadalupe Victoria, lasted five years in office but most of his successors’ (mostly army generals) terms were one or two years. The treasury was emptied out periodically most likely due to corruption at the top. Santa Anna was a colorful president but not a successful one. Juarez was the most consequential president before Diaz with a long list of accomplishments.

Diaz and Juarez were both from Oaxaca and both raised in poverty. Both studied for the priesthood and were friends even though their politics were at times in opposition. Diaz joined the army at the start of the Mexican-American war (1846-48) at age 15. He, like Juarez, studied law and rose to command the army during Juarez’s time in office.

Diaz had a brilliant military career including defeating the French on May 5, 1862. After defeating the French again in Puebla (1867) he resigned his commission and started his political career by condemning Juarez’s presidency. In 1870 he ran for president against Juarez and Lerdo de Tejada. Juarez won the election and Diaz called it a rigged election and called for a revolution which was later squelched by Juarez’s forces in 1872 just prior to Juarez’s death in that year. Lerdo assumed the presidency until 1876 when General Diaz defeated Lerdo’s forces at the Battle of Tecoac and occupied Mexico City. Lerdo was exiled in New York and Diaz became an interim president until his election in 1877.

The Porfiriato — First Term

His first order of business was to obtain US recognition of his presidency. Two stumbling blocks to recognition were 1) to stop Apache Raids from Mexico into the US, 2) resolving debt of $300,000 from the Lerdo Government. Diaz agreed to both and the presidency was recognized with a trip from US President Ulysses Grant to Mexico City.

The second order of business was to end armed conflict. This was achieved through the Paz Porfiriana. As a rigid liberal ideology, Díaz made peace with his opposition by supporting their rights to exist and financial incentives in support of their cause. It worked and there was relative peace for the first time in the Republic of Mexico.

The Porfiriato — Second Term

After his first term Diaz stepped down as president and his ardent supporter Manuel Gonzalez took over with Diaz in the background. Diaz took the time to forge greater relationships with US investors and politicians like Grant.

Manuel Gonzalez proved to be an inept and corrupt politician and was replaced by Diaz who amended the constitution to allow him to serve for another 26 years.

The Porfiriato — Subsequent terms lasting 26 years.

Those 26 years of authoritarian style produced a peaceful period which attracted foreign investments by selling Mexican influence for North American investments. The creation of an industrial infrastructure brought Mexico into the 20^th century.

Mining and oil exploration was accelerated during this period. Railroads were built along with schools, and most needed infrastructure. Mexico was at that time considered an economic power along with Britain, Germany, and England.

The political facts are undisputed: he grabbed power by force when he lost a corrupt election, ran on a platform of no reelection. He then ran for reelection and kept power through corrupt elections.

After declaring himself the winner of an eighth term as president, the country had had enough, triggering the Mexican Revolution with Francisco Madero as its president.

[Francisco Madero had opposed him and been jailed for his trouble. He escaped from jail and fled to the United States from whence he orchestrated the Mexican Revolution. His strength was in the north of Mexico where he recruited Pancho Villa and Pascual Orozco as revolutionary leaders. Villa and Orozco soon demonstrated they would not submit to Madero, which caused no end of headaches. Díaz resigned soon after — RMB].

Diaz was exiled to Paris and died 4 years later.

Many Mexicans call him a dictator; however, others, and there are many, consider Porfirio Diaz’s legacy as one that brought Mexico into the Industrial Age. The Revolutionary Propagandist had and continues to exaggerate Diaz shortcomings while ignoring his vast and consequential achievements. It’s time to bring his mortal remains to a resting place in Oaxaca where he belongs.

[I am happy to join Mike in this minority opinion. Diaz was a great man who, like all men, had his flaws. However, a hard look at his achievements for his country will demonstrate the vast progress made, along with the relative peace — both internal as well as international. He once exclaimed, “Poor Mexico! So far from God, so close to the United States!”. He thus expressed, in an incredibly concise nutshell, a major reality for our neighbors to the south. Nevertheless, under his administration, Mexico was on the gold standard and the Mexican peso was one of the world’s soundest currencies. He paid off Mexico’s creditors and balanced the budget for the first time in Mexico history — RMB]

Guadalupe Victoria, first president of the United Mexican States (1786-1843)

With his wife, Doña Carmen, in exile in Paris, shortly before his death. His wife survived him for several decades, dying in 1944.

Mexico’s Turbulent History (cont.)

August 10, 2022August 10, 2022 Richard Barnes

Generals and More Generals-One constant is the army involvement in Mexican Politics in the 19^th and 20^th Centuries — Mike Ashe

General Guadalupe Victoria was elected the first president of Mexico in 1824 and ruled until 1829.

After 1829 musical chairs of the Generals began, with one of the most noteworthy being Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna from Vera Cruz. Santa Anna was a colorful military leader and politician serving more than 40 years. He was a hero to many and a failure to most Mexicans, losing half of Mexican territory to the United States was his ultimate legacy.

Tejas Immigration

After Mexican Independence from Spain, settlement of Tejas was encouraged. In 1824 Stephen Austin received approval from the Spanish governor to bring settlers into Tejas.

In 1829 Mexico abolished slavery but it granted exceptions until 1830 to Tejas and reversed itself and made the importation of slavery illegal, which slowed Anglo-American immigration. Incentives to buy land were generous, with a $30 down payment and a 10-year tax holiday.

[As an example of generous incentives, immense tracts of land were sold for as little as 4 cents per acre. Mexico was highly desirous of populating Texas. Foreigners were invited to settle in Texas. In return they had to take the Mexican oath of allegiance and promise to be at least nominal Roman Catholics — RMB]

A ban on US immigration enacted in 1830 along with increased Mexican military presence in the region angered the Texans who pushed for self-rule.

[By 1830, Americans made up over 75% of the population of Texas, and Mexico felt it was losing control and clamped down in various ways. In effect, Mexico had encouraged and welcomed immigration and allowed them to create, without hindrance, their own community on Mexican territory. When this arrangement was rescinded, trouble followed — RMB]

In 1833 Santa Anna became president and opposed self-rule. That same year Texan delegates lead by Austin requested that Mexico roll back the 1830 laws and provide more protection from native people, exempt Tejas from anti-slavery laws, and separate Tejas from Coahuila. Austin presented the proposal to Santa Anna and was imprisoned in Mexico City. The government repealed the 1830 Law but did not grant statehood to Tejas.

[Austin wrote optimistically from Mexico, “All is going well …. General Santa Anna has solemnly and publicly declared that he will sustain the federal representative system, as it now exists ….” He had successfully negotiated resumption of immigration although not self-rule. However, overall he felt a major crisis had been defused. Then as he returned, he was arrested, sent back to Mexico, and placed in solitary confinement. This further enraged the Texans and deeply affected Austin’s outlook on Texas’ future — RMB]

Settlers continued to pour into Tejas and on March 2, 1836 Tejas Declared Independence as the Republic of Tejas. Santa Anna by then was in Tejas with a 6,000 men army. On March 6^th Santa Anna’s troops attacked the Alamo and after fierce fighting the Alamo fell and her defenders all lost their lives including survivors who were executed. The same scenario was repeated in Goliad with all defenders killed or executed. The battle of San Jacinto River took place on April 21 with Sam Houston’s surprise attack on Santa Anna’s troops, killing 630. Santa Anna was captured and the Republic of Texas was inaugurated.

[For those interested in learning more about this period of US and Mexico history, A Time To Stand by Walter Lord is an excellent resource. The book invests valuable time providing biographical as well has contextual bases for the battle. For more detail, another excellent resource is Three Road to The Alamo — RMB]

Sam Houston was elected as its first President and Stephen Austin as Secretary of State and died in office in December 1836 at the age of 43. In January 1839 Tejas adopted the Lone Star flag.

Almost ten years later Texas was annexed under the administration of James Polk.

As an aside, the Louisiana territory was purchased from France in 1803 and Alaska in 1867 from the Russians. In 1898 the Hawaiian Islands were annexed by the US.

U.S. Mexican War 1846-1848

A border dispute resulted in US troops being sent to the Rio Grande. The Mexican government saw this as an invasion and war broke out. Santa Anna returned from exile to play a role in the war. U.S. forces invaded Mexico capturing Monterrey and landing a shipload of men in Vera Cruz. The force marched into Mexico City, and after it fell, the conflict was over. U.S. troops suffered 10,000 losses from illness and about 1,500 from combat.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ceded to the United States nearly all of the northern territory including New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, California, Tejas and Western Colorado for $15 Million and assumption of citizen claims against Mexico.

In the battle of Chapultepec in Mexico City, six Mexican military cadets were killed defending the castle and are forever revered by the people of Mexico as heroes of the Republic.

Zachary Taylor became a national hero in the US after the Mexican-American War and the War of 1812. Then he became President in 1849 but died in office shortly thereafter in 1850.

President Benito Juarez-First Reform

The first pure blooded indigenous president of Mexico (a liberal politician) was Benito Juarez, born of Zapotec peasants. He worked in the cornfield and as a shepherd until age 12. His sister moved to the City of Oaxaca as a cook and Benito joined her as a house servant. At that time, he only spoke Zapotec. Benito was very intelligent and thirsty for learning and, with help from a Franciscan, to study for the priesthood. In 1829 he graduated from the Oaxaca Institute of law and science. In 1831 he received a law degree and entered politics. Unlike other Mexican politicians, he was honest, modestly unassuming, and lived a simple lifestyle. He was immensely popular as a judge, legislator, and Governor of Oaxaca. In 1853 many liberal politicians were exiled when the conservatives assumed power including Juarez who spent 2 years in New Orleans in semi poverty.

In 1857 Ignacio Comonfort was elected president and picked Juarez as his vice president and leader of the supreme court. True to form Comonfort was ousted by the conservatives. In 1860 the conservatives were losing control which resulted in Juarez being able to return to Mexico City as president.

The first act in his presidency was to suspend all foreign debt for two years which resulted in troops being dispatched from England, Spain and France in 1861 to safeguard their investments. Spain and England backed out when it became clear that Napoleon wanted to conquer Mexico and install Maximilian as Emperor. The French suffered a major defeat in Puebla on May 5^th 1862 (also known as Cinco de Mayo) but they were able to hold onto Mexico City and install their puppet. To keep his government alive Juarez retreated to El Paso del Norte (later renamed Ciudad Juarez).

The Second Emperor Maximillian and his wife Carlota

In April 1864 the Austrian Archduke backed by Mexican monarchists and many conservatives was crowned emperor. Several European countries recognized the new government of Maximillian, however, the United States continued to recognize Juarez as president. With the end of Civil War in the US Juarez began receiving military aid from its northern neighbor in 1866. Also, that year, French troops began to be withdrawn from Mexico due to the Austro-Prussian War.

Upon arrival in Mexico the Maximillian and his wife, Carlota, took residence in Chapultepec Castle. One of his first orders was to cut a wide avenue from the Castle to the city center called Paseo de la Emperatriz (now known as Paseo de Reforma). They also had a country retreat in Cuernavaca (the Palace of Cortes).

Maximillian and Carlotta had no children so they adopted two nephews of the daughter of Iturbide, the first emperor of Mexico. When one of the mothers (an American) protested, she was deported from Mexico. The truth was that these boys would never become true royalty due to not being of royal blood. The boys were later returned to their real families.

Maximillian did uphold many liberal causes to the surprise of many in Mexico including Juarez. In the end the emperor was executed by firing squad along with loyalist Generals Miramon and Mejia in 1867. Carlotta was in Europe at the time and never returned to Mexico.

Juarez could have commuted the death sentence but chose not to because he believed it was needed to send the message that foreign intervention in Mexico should never happen again.

The French influence and legacy in Mexico included making pastries. The bolillos (French rolls) are a staple in Mexico served in even the most upscale restaurants in Mexico City. Pan Dulce is a treat for many of us with a sweet tooth.

There was even a Pastry War between Mexico and France in 1839 involving — who else? — Santa Anna.

My wife’s family claims French ancestry but has yet to prove it in the kitchen (of course just kidding).

Juarez was returned to power after the emperor’s death. In 1871 after being reelected he served for one year and in 1872 died of a heart attack. His legacy of domestic reform was the start of the end of neocolonialism in Mexico and his leadership in the face of Napoleonic aggression made him a true hero.

Next: The Porfiriato

Santa Anna surrenders to a wounded Sam Houston (1836)

Doña Dolores Tosta de Santa Anna. Santa Anna was considered the uncrowned monarch of Mexico.

Execution of Emperor Maximilian (right) and Generals Miramon and Mejia, 1867.

Last moments of Emperor Maximilian. Note his courage which was further attested by his final words (in Spanish) before execution: “I forgive everyone and I ask everyone to forgive me. May my blood, which is about to be shed, be for the good of the country. Viva Mexico, viva independence!”

Mexico’s Independence from Spain — Mike Ashe

August 3, 2022August 3, 2022 Richard Barnes

I much appreciate these guest posts by Mike Ashe. We Americans are often accused — sometimes unfairly, sometimes fairly — of being somewhat insular. I have always been impressed meeting folks from South America, Central America, the Caribbean, and Mexico, who possess a knowledge of the United States — sometimes incomplete, sometimes imperfect, but that, nevertheless, often far surpasses our knowledge of their lands.

Thank you, Mike

Part I

Mexico’s Independence from Spain

I always wondered how a small European Country could rule over vast lands in Mesoamerica for three centuries.

In the case of New Spain, the conquest of the Aztecs preserved the colonization of Mesoamerica. The principal reason to invade was to secure a large population of somewhat docile/sedentary people. Its principal architect and leader was Hernando Cortes; it would be very doubtful if anyone else would have been that successful. Cortes was a driven person for the Crown but also for himself.

In the early 16^th century and pre-industrial revolution, a large labor force was a tremendous asset for the Crown. The population in the central valleys were over 19 million; as a frame of reference Europe’s population was 61 million and Spain’s was almost 10 million, but after expelling the Jews and Moriscos it fell to 7.5 million. The Inca empire was the only population that was comparable to New Spain. The Incas were a very technologically advanced culture but unfortunately with no written language like the Aztecs.

The consolidation of the central valleys (present day states of Mexico State, Mexico City, Morelos, Puebla, Tlaxcala and Veracruz) was ultimately the key to longevity in New Spain. Any attempts to venture out of that central region proved to be difficult and the risk reward was not there. There was an attempt to conquer the Mayan controlled area south of Vera Cruz but the oppressive heat and the ferocity of the Mayans resulted in a Spanish retreat and complete abandonment of any future plans of conquest.

Northern Mexico was arid with a population of aggressive indigenous people (The Chichimecas-Zacatecos); there was no plan to colonize the north. That changed in the mid-16^th century when vast deposits of silver were discovered in Zacatecas (located in the Central Mexican Plateau). When the Spaniards moved in, they were met with fierce opposition from a formidable Zacateco warrior culture.

The Chichimeca war proved to be very costly and lasted 40 years. The Zacatecos were smart and fierce fighters with weaponry that could pierce Spanish armor. Like the present-day special forces, they were agile and physically fit, opposing a sedentary Spanish and indigenous ally force. The fighting finally ended through Catholic evangelism from the Catholic church.

The prospects of similar encounters with the Apache and Comanche tamed down any significant move further into the north.

[For those interested in learning further about the pacification of the fierce nations in the north of Mexico, I recommend Mexico’s Miguel Caldera by Philip Wayne Powell. Excellent history with much reliance on primary sources — RMB]

Decolonization of the Americas/Philippines

The decolonization of the Americas began with The American Revolutionary war 1775-1783. The Continental forces fought against primarily against British and Hessians (30,000 German mercenaries forces) with some assistance from colonial loyalists. The Continental forces were interestingly supported by Spain and France against their common enemy the British. Prelude to war included disputes between Royal Governors (Viceroys) and the colonial legislatures in each of the thirteen colonies. Self-rule was the overriding issue for war.

New Spain, all the Spanish Colonies in South America, and Brazil began decolonization in 1808-1825 triggered by Napoleon’s conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. Unlike the American Revolution the combatants were mainly internal (Loyalist vs Insurgents) with only minimal military support from Spain or Portugal.

The war in Mexico was between the Peninsulares and Creoles with some but not much assistance from Spanish forces. The revolutionary/liberator leaders include Iturbide (Mexico) Bolivar (Venezuela, Colombia), San Martin (Argentina, Ecuador, Peru), O’Higgins of Chile, Dom Pedro (Brazil), and Manuela Saenz (Ecuador, Colombia).

However, decolonization was not really completed until the Spanish American War in the late nineteenth century.

The common belief through the years has been that the war started with the mysterious sinking of the US battleship (Maine) in Havana Harbor in 1898. At the time folklore also centered around the roughriders (including Teddy Roosevelt) charging up San Juan Hill to victory. Actually, the war was fought on two fronts: the Philippines and Cuba. The first shot was not fired in Cuba but in the Philippines when Admiral Dewey entered Manila Bay and destroyed the Spanish fleet.

The naval operation was repeated in Cuba with the same results. With their naval forces destroyed and its army stranded, Spain was forced to accept surrender under the US president’s terms. The war was a mostly a naval operation, not a ground war.

Terms of surrender included freedom for Cuba and cession of Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States, and the sale of the Philippines to the US for $20 Million.

A second revolt, this time against the US occupiers resulted in the Philippine American war that lasted three years (1899-1902). The war was bloody, with 20,000 Filipino fighters and 4,200 American soldiers killed along with 200,000 civilian deaths. In 1935 the Commonwealth of the Philippines was established and full Independence was granted in July 4, 1946. This was mostly a ground operation.

[For those interested in learning further about this period, a readable history which seeks to be even-handed as possible is Ivan Musicant’s Empire by Default: The Spanish-American War and the Dawn of the American Century — RMB]

Decolonization of New Spain

In 1803 Father Miguel Hidalgo Grito de Dolores lit the fuse for Independence from Spain in 1824 known as the First Mexican Republic with a total population of 6 and ½ million living in 31 states.

The First Emperor of Mexico

The Treaty of Cordoba ended New Spain dependence on Spanish rule in 1821 and established Augustin Cosme Damian y Iturbide as “The First Emperor of Mexico”. Coronated in 1822, he served only one year as emperor. Iturbide’s was the only former Spanish colony that established a monarchy after gaining independence.

The first Mexican monarchy reign was short lived when after dissolving congress and operating with a depleted treasury a revolt broke out which resulted in the loss of support of the army. After a revolt he reconvened congress and offered his abdication. A provisional government was appointed which ended the first Mexican Monarch.

In 1824 Iturbide returned from exile in England to Mexico and was arrested and executed by firing squad.

[His words before the firing squad were “Mexicans! In the very act of my death, I recommend to you the love to the fatherland, and the observance to our religion, for it shall lead you to glory. I die having come here to help you, and I die merrily, for I die amongst you. I die with honor, not as a traitor; I do not leave this stain on my children and my legacy. I am not a traitor, no.” — RMB]

While Emperor, Mexico territory included California and all of Central America. After the abdication the Central American provinces formed the Republic of Central America with only Chiapas remaining part of Mexico.

Next: Generals and More Generals — One Constant Is the Army’s Involvement in Mexico’s Politics in the 19th and 20th Centuries.

Civil War and Ending — Mike Ashe

The Mexican Revolution 1910-1920 – Part 1 — Mike Ashe

The Porfiriato (1876-1911)

Generals and More Generals-One constant is the army involvement in Mexican Politics in the 19th and 20th Centuries — Mike Ashe

Part I

Generals and More Generals-One constant is the army involvement in Mexican Politics in the 19^th and 20^th Centuries — Mike Ashe