Pancho Villa – The Pull Of The Land

The Mexican Revolution 1910 – 1920: Part 4 — US Interventions — Mike Ashe

September 6, 2022September 6, 2022 Richard Barnes

[This is the fourth of a 4-part post: Prologue and Beginning; Civil War and Ending; Scorecard; and US Interventions. This part, “US Interventions”, focuses on the major investments US companies and others made in Mexico, especially in the railroads — which are a true marvel — but also in oil. This was an era of remarkable men such as Weetman Dickinson Pearson, 1st Viscount and William F. Buckley, Sr., who, though long gone, have nevertheless left their mark — RMB]

The US Investments in Mexico that needed to be protected during the ten years of revolution

As mentioned earlier, during the Porfirio Diaz presidency there was a great influx of US and British investments in Mexico. US railroad companies had extended their lines to the border prior to Diaz presidency. When Diaz took office the Southern Pacific and the Santa Fe extended their lines into Mexico which represented 66% of the system valued at about $650Million. Along the rail routes telegraph lines were erected.

[Porfirio Diaz was truly a visionary for his beloved Mexico. The development of Mexico’s railways owes much to this remarkable man. As Mike put it in earlier post, his body should eventually be returned to Mexico, where he belongs. In the 1870s Mexico was a land of horsemen, pack mules, and cargadores (human burden-bearers) for goods traffic. Diaz was quick to realize the possibilities of railways and he ensured they spread rapidly. Mexico had a stable government for the first time since her independence and disorder did not reappear until his exile. By then railway mileage had increased from 350 to more than 13,000 miles. Significant foreign investment had poured into Mexico — RMB]

US mining companies explored and began mining; one of the most famous Mines was in Cananea, Sonora. The Smelting and mining interest alone were worth more than $250 Million.

As an aside, my grandfather worked in Anaconda’s mine in Cananea for 20 years as the power plant superintendent. My visits to Cananea were very memorable, especially the drive from Naco/Bisbee Arizona to Cananea. At that time the roads were not paved and without bridges so the fun part was crossing the many arroyos in route — some dry, others full of water so we would have to wait until the water receded to pass. The desert was teeming with wildlife but very few people until you arrived in Cananea.

Tracks of land for timber/cattle/sugar/rubber were sold to American Investors; some of these tracks were as large as one million acres. Valued at $80 Million.

Oil discoveries by US and British engineers around Tampico and Tuxpan, Veracuz, followed with its development circa 1905. Valued at about $15 Million at that time the oil business was in its infancy when the Revolution started but managed to grow rapidly to the point that it furnished a large percentage of oil needed by the British Warships during WWI.

As an Aside: Weetman Dickerson Pearson a British Engineer 1^st Viscount Cowdray was a very interesting participant in the Mexican Oil business along with other business adventures in Mexico during that time. Note the size of his castle in Scotland.

[He was one of many remarkable men of that era. He went to Mexico in 1889. Per Encyclopedia Brittanica: “He drained swamps; built railways, power lines, waterworks, and harbors; and acquired much oil-rich land. He began drilling to obtain fuel for his locomotives and, in the first two decades of the 20th century, secured control of the Mexican oil industry. His firm built the Blackwall Tunnel under the Thames River, London, and several railroad tunnels under the East River, New York City; enlarged the Dover harbor; and in 1926 completed a large dam on the Blue Nile in Sudan.” — RMB]

The United States of America’s Interventions In Mexico

There were a lot of behind-the-scenes manipulations by the US government during the revolution with the main event being the invasion of Vera Cruz in 1914.

The primary reason for the intervention was to protect US financial interests in Mexico which were estimated at between $1.5 to $2 billion.

The other issue was Huerta’s assassination of Madero, the duly elected president in whom the US government was heavily vested. One must also understand that at the time, Huerta only controlled a small portion of the Mexican republic, mainly Mexico City. Wilson’s refusal to acknowledge his administration as legitimate created the atmosphere for conflict which Wilson acted upon as a pretext for intervention after some minor incidents in the port of Tampico.

The US lost the PR war first by indiscriminately shelling the port of Veracruz resulting in loss of civilian life, and, second, the battle of Chapultepec Castle. The battle was memorialized by both sides including:

Los Niños Héroes — Five military cadets refused to retreat, defending the castle to their deaths including one that jumped from the castle with the Mexican Flag wrapped around his body so that the Americans could not capture it.

Saint Patrick Battalion — Thirty US army deserters who fought on the Mexican side were executed at the exact time the US flag was raised over the castle.

US Marines Hymn — The famed line “From the halls of Montezuma” in honor of the 90% of the officers’ corps who were killed during the battle).

Marines Blood Stripe — Scarlet red stripe on Marines dress trousers worn by all US Marines remembering those who died at Chapultepec.

Huerta left the country after the taking Mexico City; US forces left Mexico after 6 months.

One of the highlights for the US intervention was the use of amphibious landing equipment on the Veracruz beaches. The exercise was a laughable failure but it led to perfecting the exercise during WWII.

The second intervention was a punitive action resulting from Pancho Villa’s raid on the border town of Columbus New Mexico in 1916. There was also an attack by Villa on a train Near Santa Isabel, Chihuahua, that killed several ASARCO employees (a US mining company) and fifteen from American Smelting and Refining company. A lone survivor was able to recount the incident. General Pershing led the expedition with 5,000 troops to capture or kill Pancho Villa.

The military failed in its objective to capture Villa and was another PR failure of the inept Woodrow Wilson. Wilson’s restriction on Pershing made it impossible to meet the initial objectives, the incursion only lasted 8 months. It was a humiliating defeat for great General Pershing who was embittered by Wilson’s duplicity.

The real story behind all this was that Villa was once friendly to the US even visiting Pershing in Fort Bliss, El Paso Texas. Wilson (once again the meddler) in late 1915 felt that supporting Venustiano Carranza was the best way to stabilize the Mexican military chaos and withdrew support for Villa. Villa felt betrayed by the US when the US stopped arms sales to his army.

[There are two fascinating accounts narrated by the late Reid Buckley, youngest of the William F. Buckley, Sr. clan, about his father’s encounters with Villa. The first was when Villa held up a train and, pointing his pistol at the hapless conductor’s skull, cocked the hammer, demanding he tell his men where the gold was hid. Buckley had hid the gold in cuspidors but the conductor had no knowledge of this. As the conductor begged Villa to believe him, that he knew nothing, Villa’s men burst from the men’s room, “We have found the gold!”. But Villa raised his pistol, again cocking the hammer, “I will kill you anyway.” At this Buckley called out in a loud voice, in Spanish, “Do not hurt that man. I hid the gold. He knew nothing about it.”

[It is a fascinating account, at the end of which, Villa said to Buckley, “And you, Guillermo Buckley, come see me at a better time. I respect courage.”

[The second was no less dramatic but space does not permit. Reid Buckley affirmed that the Mexican frontier shaped his father’s creed. A high compliment indeed. For more, see An American Family: The Buckleys by Reid Buckley — RMB]

Wilson’s meddling resulted in Mexico non-support of the US during WWI. They instead remained neutral during the war.

Obviously not a fan of Woodrow.

[Neither am I – RMB]

Cananea in Sonora, Mexico: one of the world’s largest open-pit copper mines opened in 1899

Railway Station, Nogales, Arizona, bordering Mexico, circa 1920

The Culiacan River Bridge, built by Southern Pacific Railroad of Mexico (US subsidiary), on the west coast of Mexico. The railways were constructed chiefly by American and British enterprise, but are now owned mostly by Mexican companies.

Weetman Dickinson Pearson, 1st Viscount Cowdray (1856 – 1927)

Dunecht House, a residence in Scotland of 1st Viscount Cowdray and the place of his death in 1927

William F. Buckley, Sr. (1881 – 1958), nicknamed “Blue Eyes” by Pancho Villa

The Mexican Revolution 1910 – 1920: Part 3 — Scorecard — Mike Ashe

August 31, 2022August 31, 2022 Richard Barnes

[This is the third of a 4-part post: Prologue and Beginning; Civil War and Ending; Scorecard; US Interventions. This part, “Scorecard”, focuses on names and I found it to be of much help in “matching” names to timeframes and events. Americans are well-advised to be more cognizant of the major events of our neighbor to the south — RMB]

Scorecard of the Revolution

It’s hard to follow the events and participants of the revolution without a scorecard. Hopefully this will help answer the questions raised in the prologue.

[Mike’s prologue asks whether the Mexican Revolution advanced the interests of the Mexican people. See Part 1 for more — RMB]

Presidents in Chronological Order After Porfirio Diaz beginning in 1910:

1) Francisco Madero — In office 1911-1913. From Mexico’s wealthiest families, from the State of Coahuila. Educated in UC Berkley. Assassinated by Victoriano Huerta in 1913. Resting place: Monument of the Revolution, Mexico City

2) Victoriano Huerta — In office by coup 1913-1914. From the state of Jalisco. Military Career. Presidency not recognized by US as legitimate. US President Woodrow Wilson ordered troops to Vera Cruz and into Mexico City. Huerta fled the country to Jamaica, UK, Spain, and the US, continuing to plan another coup until his death in El Paso Texas. Viewed with great disdain then and now.

[Huerta is indeed viewed very negatively. But, as usual, there is more to the story, especially the catastrophic effect of Woodrow Wilson’s supposedly moralistic approach to foreign policy and his responsibility behind Huerta’s actions. If interested, The United States and Huerta, by Kenneth Grieb is a good resource — RMB]

4) Venustiano Carranza — 1915-1920. Wealthy land owner from the state of Coahuila-Northern Mexico. A shrewd politician and Primer Jefe of the constitutionalists. A pragmatic governing style did not win him many friends at the time but history has been kind to him. His assassination in 1920 marks the ending of the Revolutionary Period in Mexico.

Noteworthy Combatants:

1) Alvaro Obregón — From the State of Sonora (Northern Mexico). Most successful of all the Constitutionalist Revolutionary Generals. A practitioner of Modern Warfare used in WW1, he was able to defeat all his enemies including Huerta, Villa, and Zapata. In his fight against Villa his right arm was blown off, which nearly killed him. His severed arm was recovered, embalmed, and put on display at the Parque de la Bombilla in Mexico City. Obregón was the first post revolution president from 1920-1924. In 1928 he was again elected president but assassinated shortly after his reelection.

[Obregón chose Plutarco Calles (see below) as his successor. He is rarely held accountable for this nefarious decision, but ought to be — RMB]

2) Emiliano Zapata — From the state of Morelos (south of Mexico City). A champion of the peasants and agrarian reform, Zapata was a fierce fighter and feared by many which resulted in his assassination in 1919, ordered by Carranza.

3) Jose Doroteo Arrango Arambula, aka Pancho Villa — Northerngeneral allied with Zapata against Carranza in a full-fledged civil war. Lost to Obregón. In 1916 invaded Columbus New Mexico to goad the US into war with Mexico. Was assassinated in 2023. In 1976 his remains were reburied in the Monument to the Revolution.

4) Pascual Orozco Vázquez, Jr. — Army General who led forces that ended Diaz’s presidency by first raiding government garrisons. In 1911 after ambushing federal troops, he ordered their uniforms to be removed and sent to the President with a note which read, “Ahí te van las hojas, mándeme mas tamales” (Here are the wrappers; send me more tamales). He later joined Huerta in planning a coup to overthrow Carranza supported by the Germans circa WWI years. He exiled himself to the US from whence he, with Huerta, sought financial assistance to take power in Mexico. He was arrested along with Huerta in Texas, but escaped. He and three of his men were ambushed and killed in 1915. In 1925 his remains were returned to Chihuahua.

5) Plutarco Elias Calles — Northern General under Obregón; later became president in 1924-28. Responsible for the Cristeros War.

[Plutarco Calles was born in poverty; his mother and alcoholic father were not married, at a time when such was keenly disapproved of. After his mother’s death, he was reared by his uncle, an ardent atheist and fanatical anti-Christian. Unsurprisingly, Calles was vehemently anti-church and worked tirelessly to eliminate her. No public religious services were held for three years, until 1929, after he left office, although his influence persisted for over half a decade more. Upon the election of Lázaro Cárdenas — even more leftist than Calles — in 1934, he was exiled and lived in California until 1941, when he was allowed to return to Mexico where he died in 1945 — RMB]

6) Enrique Gorostieta — Huerta’s youngest general who fled to Cuba after Huerta was defeated. Later, he returned as General of the Cristeros even though he was a Mason and anti-cleric.

[Andy Garcia played the role of Gorostieta in the film, For Greater Glory, in which Ruben Blades played a credible Plutarco Calles — RMB]

The 1917 Mexican Constitution

There were four constitutions before 1917. The 1917 constitution created a minimum wage, the right to strike, and an eight-hour workday. It also implemented a strict separation of church and state, land reforms, and term limits for the president and the legislature. It also contained a statute limiting the amount of land that a person could own and legalized the federal government’s expropriation and redistribution of land.

Articles 3, 5, 24, 27, and 130 were anticlerical and restricted the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico.

Article 3 — According to the religious definitions established under article 24, educational services shall be secular and free of any religious orientation.

Article 27 Places of worship are owned by the state, not the church

Article 130 Gave the right of the federal government to regulate church services. President Plutarco Elias Calles issued an executive decree to strictly enforce this article that led to the Cristeros war.

Like Mexican slavery, most Mexicans do not know much about the Cristeros war; it was shamefully covered up.

[Calles’ power continued for over half a decade beyond his presidency. He named his ally, Tomás Garrido Canabal, to serve in Lázaro Cárdenas’ cabinet. Garrido, like Callas, was a virulent atheist. He named his son, Lenin, because he (Lenin) was an enemy of God. He had a farm with a bull named God, a cow named Mary, and a donkey named Christ. He zealously pursued the anti-church policies of Callas, even years after the official end of the Cristeros War. After he ordered the murders of Christians in Mexico City, in 1935, Cárdenas sent him to Costa Rica. He died in Los Angeles in 1943 — RMB]

[Unsurprisingly, both Calles and Garrido ceased to be atheists upon their respective deaths — RMB]

The constitution was amended 62 times from 1917-1979 and 137 times from 1980-2016.

Alvaro Obregón (1880-1928) after the Battle of Celaya in 1915. A brave and colorful soldier and man.

Venustiano Carranza is seated on the left; Francisco Madero is seated, third from the left; Pascual Orozco is seated on the right. Pancho Villa is standing on the left.

Pascual Orozco, third from left; Francisco Madero, second from right (circa 1911)

Plutarco Calles (1877-1945) at his house in Mexico City (circa 1931) where he continued to hold strategic meetings after his presidency.

Andy Garcia in the role of Enrique Gorostieta in the film, *For Greater Glory,* one of the very few dramatizations of a truly terrible product of the Mexican Revolution.

Graham Greene’s novel, later made into a John Ford film starring Henry Fonda and Pedro Armendariz. The Mexican official who pursues the Christians is believed to be modeled after Tomás Garrido Canabal.

Tomás Garrido Canabal (1890 – 1943), virulent anti-Christian, still considered a revolutionary hero by the usual suspects

The Mexican Revolution 1910 – 1920

August 26, 2022August 26, 2022 Richard Barnes

[This is the second of a 4-part post: Prologue and Beginning; Civil War and Ending; Scorecard; US Interventions. The reader will recognize several names from movies, novels, or other sources, but Mike manages to put them in at least a general context which enhances our understanding and, if interested, encourages further study. Regardless of the level of interest, Americans are well-advised to be more cognizant of the major events of our neighbor to the south — RMB]

Civil War and Ending — Mike Ashe

The Civil War Breaks Out

Francisco Madero was assassinated by the commander of Los Federales (federal troops) Victoriano Huerta in 1913. Huerta assumed power and dissolved the congress. At the same time, Jose Venustiano Carranza (a shrewd Politician) issued the Plan de Guadalupe to oust Huerta. His plan called for agrarian reform (unlike Zapata’s Plan de Ayala which was specific to the state of Morelos) and created communally held village lands called “ejidos” for all of Mexico. At the same time, he became the leader of the Northern Coalition (Alvaro Obregón and Pancho Villa).

[One of the effects of the violent civil war that broke out in Mexico was the thousands of refugees fleeing north across the border. This was a major issue when Woodrow Wilson took office in 1913 — RMB]

In 1914 Woodrow Wilson sent Marines to Vera Cruz and before entering the port city bombarded it — resulting in great numbers of civilian deaths, as well as that of young naval academy cadets, to support the revolutionaries. This tipped the scale and led to victories by revolutionary troops and Huerta resigned and left the country. The US exited Mexico City leaving behind valuable military hardware for Carranza whom Wilson supported.

[Madero’s “liberal” philosophy was to upend the social order in Mexico by destroying the landed aristocracy and the Roman Catholic church, thereby sowing the seeds which eventuated in the terrible Cristeros War a decade after his death. His politics bore constitutional fruit in 1916 (see below). After his assassination, Wilson refused to recognize Huerta’s government and relations deteriorated between Mexico and the United States, especially after Veracruz — RMB]

Political infighting and shifting alliances/coalitions between Obregon, Villa, Zapata, and Carranza led to the Convention of the revolutionary generals in Aguascalientes (north of Mexico City). The convention was a failure resulting in more civil war.

Villa and Zapata appealed to the peasant population but not to the urban workers. Carranza used this and his strong stance against the US occupation of Vera Cruz and Mexico City to political advantage.

His armies also held strategic positions such as the Ports of Vera Cruz, Port of Tampico, Mexico City, and the oil fields. Carranza defeated the northern armies and the Zapatistas in 1915.

Once an ally of the unions, he feared their continued strength worrying about the survival of capitalism with the number of labor strikes increasing. He first tried to negotiate with the workers but a series of general strikes forced him to use his troops to suppress their movement. In 1916 the Constitutional army along with foreign investors forcibly disbanded the Casa de Obrero Mundial and defeated the working-class revolution.

Obregon became Carranza’s minister of war.

During the presidency of Porfirio Diaz, foreign mining companies received generous concessions; however, Carranza issued a decree to return the wealth of oil and coal to the Mexican people, raised taxes, and removed the diplomatic recourse for mining companies. These policies were opposed by the US, but she did recognize Carranza as president.

[The stated purpose of Carranza’s nationalizations was indeed to bequeath Mexico’s natural wealth to her people. However, the fruits of these policies are still evanescent to this day, when wealth is unevenly distributed, much as it was at the end of Porfirio Diaz’s rule — RMB]

In 1916 a constitutional convention was held in Queretaro with 85 conservatives and 132 radicals. The radicals promoted widespread labor reform and Articles 3 and 130 were strongly anticlerical; the Roman Catholic Church was denied recognition as a legal entity, priests were denied rights and subject to public registration; religious education was forbidden, public religious ritual outside the church were forbidden, and all churches were property of the nation. The position of Vice President was eliminated, and Carranza became president in 1917.

[In March 1916, Villa raided Columbus, New Mexico, killing 20 Americans. Despite the demands of outraged senators, Wilson did not declare war on Mexico, although he did order Brigadier General John J. Pershing deep into Mexico in a fruitless mission to capture Villa. Wilson ran for reelection in 1916 on the slogan, “He kept us out of war”, meaning war with Mexico, and, by implication, the then raging Great War, which we nevertheless entered in 1917 — RMB]

Fighting continued against Carranza including Emiliano Zapata in the Morelos mountains, Porfirio Diaz supporters active in Vera Cruz, and Pancho Villa active in Chihuahua. Obregon retired to his ranch in Sonora and Carranza ordered the assassination of Zapata in 1919.

Carranza remained neutral during World War I mainly due to anti-American sentiment resulting from interventions and invasions. This was a smart move by Carranza keeping German Companies operating and selling oil to the British to fuel their warships against the Germans.

In 1920 Carranza decided against running for president again but failed to promote Alvaro Obregon as his successor. Obregon and his allies, Sonora generals (Plutarco Calles and Adolfo de la Huerta), issued the Plan de Agua Prieta. It repudiated the Carranza government and renewed the Revolution.

Ending of the Revolution

A Carranza assassination attempt failed which prompted Obregon to bring his army to Mexico City. Carranza fled to Vera Cruz where he was assassinated on May 21, 1920. The telegram ordering his death was from Colonel Lazaro Cardenas, a future president of Mexico.

There were 30,000 mourners at his funeral cortege. He was buried among ordinary Mexicans in a third-class section of the cemetery. His heart was kept by the family and later reunited with his body in 1942 at the Monument to the Revolution.

Carranza’s death marked the end of the Mexican Revolution.

Cartoon published in the United States in 1920 when Carranza was ousted. Unfortunately many Americans, reflecting Woodrow Wilson’s antagonisms (to put it charitably), viewed the unfortunate revolutionary fervors in Mexico as simply that of a people who did not know how to govern themselves, thereby obviating centuries of self-rule under Spain and obscuring the philosophical realities, which were actually French Revolutionary dogmas. The very same dogmas which today threaten the United States.

The reality of the Mexican Revolution was not cartoonish at all

Victoriano Huerta (1854-1916, died in jail in El Paso, Texas)

General Pancho Villa (1878-1923 — assassinated). Northern Alliance, or the Army of the North

Pancho Villa and General John J. Pershing, Fort Bliss, El Paso, Texas, 1914

The charismatic Emiliano Zapata, General of the Southern Army in Morelos (1879-1919, assassinated)

President Jose Venustiano Carranza (1859-1920, assassinated)

Alvaro Obregon, General of the North and President of Mexico (1880-1928, assassinated)

Mexico’s Turbulent History — Part III: Colonial Mexico

July 18, 2022July 18, 2022 Richard Barnes

This is the third in a series of posts by my friend, Mike Ashe, who has lived in and visited Mexico and has a love and appreciation for that great country.

Mexico has much in common with all of Latin America, not least of which is her Spanish heritage. Therefore, in reviewing her history, one can glean understanding regarding Venezuela as well.

And, as you will see in some of Mike’s commentary, she has much in common with us and Europe in her secular rush to gender ideology, critical race theory, anti-Christianity, and more.

Thank you again, Mike.

By Mike Ashe

Prologue

Rewriting, canceling and ignoring historical era norms to promote an ideology has always been a reality throughout history and continues now in 21^st century México. From the beginning of Colonial Time there has been a constant battle between Secularism and Catholicism. In 1857 the Mexican Constitution established human rights but still did not resolve the continuing conflict.

Recently and without merit, the now President of México, Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador (AMLO) asked the Spanish Government and Pope Francis to apologize to the indigenous Mexicans for wrongs committed during the Spanish conquest some 500 years ago.

It is absurd that this irresponsible grievance ideology continues to deflect the lack of vision and governing incompetence of today’s politicians like AMLO. The truth is that modern México, would not be possible without New Spain (with all its good and bad).

AMLO has always been a far left secular demagogue introducing his own version of his North America’s neighbor’s “WOKENESS”. But this attack on Spain and The Catholic Church is nothing new in Mexican politics especially when attempting to deflect blame for his and other’s failed presidencies/governances.

AMLO has always been an admirer of the Castro brothers and Che and has developed a warm relationship with the current Cuban dictator Miguel-Diaz-Canel. In 2020 Guadalajara’s Cardinal Juan Sandoval Iñiguez published on his website that the “atheist” Mexican government has begun to take her people down a slippery slope to communism. He backed up his claim by citing how AMLO is assuming a dictatorial role, promoting gender ideology over family values, support for abortion among others.

Roman Catholicism in México, (Counterweight to the Secular Theology, started in 1521 and continues today). In the 1926-29-Cristero Civil War — a rebellion launched by Marxist President Plutarco Elias Calles by executive decree to eliminate the power of the Catholic Church and repress religious freedom. It was bloody: 60,000 Mexican troops and 30,000 Cristeros plus many more civilians lost their lives. In 2000 the Vatican conferred sainthood to 20 priests and 3 laymen.

The First 100 Years

First, let us not forget that Tenochtitlan was an elegant island city with magnificent twin snowcapped Volcanos on the horizon. The altiplano climate at 5,000-7000 ft above sea level was mild year-round with an abundance of water and food for its people. Tenochtitlan was a huge city with public institutions, a system of government, schools, and public services to rival the cities of Europe at that time. This was truly an enchanted part of the world as the 16^th Century began. The Spaniards that first entered the Valley of México, were spellbound by its beauty.

As for the Aztec leader Montezuma the Spaniards arrival meant war and ultimately defeat for him and his people. There are many accounts of what transpired then, suffice it to say that the conquest was completed in 1524.

Colonial México, began when the conquering Spaniards renamed Tenochtitlan México, City. Tenochtitlan was completely destroyed and rebuilt as Nueva Espana (New Spain) and lasted almost 300 years. We will not get into the reconstruction here but it was extensive and lasted for centuries. Hernando Cortes as Governor moved quickly, bringing the first stocks of cattle, sheep, goats, and European vegetables and encouraging his men to marry native women, beginning the first Mestizo race.

In the 1540’s most of the Yucatan was conquered and the city of Merida was founded in 1542. The Mayan empire did not fall until the end of the century. Silver finds in Zacatecas prompted the need to conquer the north sending missionaries into modern day Texas, New México, Arizona, California, Utah, and Colorado.

The destruction was not limited to Tenochtitlan; it meant the almost complete depopulation of the Aztec empire or 10-12 million (Pre-Conquest) with only a million survivors primarily due to the European Small Pox and Measles epidemics (to which the indigenous people had no immunity). The plagues along with famine lasted till the mid-17^th century.

Solving a Labor Shortage

The labor shortage was rectified by the importation of African Slaves and Asians, practically equivalent to slaves.

Blacks were imported as slaves early in the 1520’s and slavery lasted throughout the 300 years of colonial rule bringing in some 200,000 slaves (as a frame of reference, a total of 450,000 arrived in the US. However both the US and Mexico pale against Brazil, which received over 4,900,000 African slaves).

Slaves were used in the silver mines of Zacatecas, Taxco, Guanajuato, and Pachuca; textile factories in Puebla and Oaxaca; and in households everywhere. The knowledge about México’s Africans Slavery is limited; even today most think that Blacks arrived in México, as runaways from North America and Cuba. Now, African descendants identify as Mexican, not Africans. It’s amazing that their spirits were never broken and that there is little to no resentment among their descendants.

As an aside — the heritage of Mexican Blacks includes a rebellion of escaped slaves in the Vera Cruz region lead by Gaspar Yanga (a reported prince from Gabon Africa) between 1570-1609. Yanga’s decades long resistance was in the vicinity of Mount Orizaba the highest mountain in Mexico at 18,491 ft (third highest in North America after Denali and Logan). In 1631 after many bloody battles Yanga and the Spanish Viceroy Pacheco negotiated a settlement that recognized an autonomous region for the African community called San Lorenzo de los Negros. Later renamed in 1932 Gaspar Yanga in horror or the liberator. Slavery was abolished in Mexico in 1829.

Another little-known slave importation included about 8,000 Asians imported into México on Portuguese Galleons from the Philippines/South East Asia, categorized as Chinos to also bolster the labor shortage. They were later treated the same as the indigenous, or vassels of the Spanish Crown after 1672 and not held as property.

As an aside-the massacre of Chinos occurred during the Mexican Revolution mostly by Pancho Villa in the North. The Asians were marched off the largest building in Ciudad Chihuahua and thrown down abandoned mineshafts. Of course, historians blame it as a colonial leftover!

The most important part of the colonial period was the introduction of Roman Catholicism in new Spain.

As New Spain was born, old Spain became challenged with the prospects of governing a land and population that was far greater than their own and two months away by sea to reach. To their credit, they appointed a Viceroy to oversee the Territories from California to Panama, Caribbean Islands, and the Philippines (there were total of 62 viceroys). They also setup a high court including Nuno de Guzman one of three judges in México, with disastrous results for the indigenous population.

During the same time the first bishop of México, Juan de Zumarraga entered México, in 1527 and was enraged by Guzman’s mistreatment of the poor indigenous people and the judges corruption. Guzman was savage in his treatment of the people of México, he was returned to Spain and put under house arrest. His replacement proved to be a man of high quality and corrected many of the abuses.

The bishop and the Spanish friars were viewed by the people as their allies and all of México, was converted to the Catholic faith.

Apparitions of Our Lady of Guadalupe (It’s reported occurrence is perhaps the most consequential in Mexican History)

According to the account of the apparition written in the Nahuatl language The Virgin Mary appeared to Juan Diego (an indigenous Chichimec peasant) four times and once to his uncle Juan Bernardino.

The first apparition occurred in the morning of 9 December 1531 Juan Diego experienced a vision of a young woman on the Hill of Tepeyac and speaking in the Nahuatl language identified herself as the mother of the true deity. She asked that a church be erected at the site in her honor.

Diego reported the apparition to the Archbishop Juan de Zumaraga. The bishop, not unexpectedly, did not believe. Later that same day (the second apparition) Our Lady asked Diego to keep insisting.

The following day on the 10^th Diego spoke to the archbishop the second time. This time the bishop asked for a sign to prove her identity.

Later that day Diego returned to Tepeyac (the third apparition occurred) reporting the archbishop’s request for a sign, to which she agreed.

On the 11^th of December Juan Diego’s uncle became ill which required that he attend to him. Early the next day his uncle’s conditioned had worsened and on his death bed Diego took his uncle to a priest to hear his last confession.

Ashamed that he had been tardy in meeting with the Virgin, Diego chose another route bypassing Tepeyac. En route the virgin intercepted him (fourth apparition) asking him where he was going. Diego explained his situation and the virgin asked him “No estoy yo aguí, que soy tu madre?” (Am I not here? I who am your mother?) This is the most important phrase in Mexican History and is inscribed above the entrance to the Basilica de Guadalupe.

The Virgin then directed Juan Diego to gather roses on the summit of Tepeyac which due to the winter was normally barren, he obeyed and found Castilian roses not native to México, but common in Spain (special miraculous significance). The Virgin arranged the flowers in Juan Diego’s cloak and when he opened the cloak later that day before the Archbishop Zumaraga the flowers fell to the floor revealing on the cloak fabric the Virgin of Guadalupe.

Also, during the fourth appearance the Virgin Mary told Diego that his uncle was fully recovered. On December 13^th the virgin also appeared to Diego’s uncle Juan Bernadino (the fifth apparition) who pleaded for his life. She instructed the uncle to inform the archbishop of his miraculous cure. A second miracle was performed when a man was mortally wounded on the neck by an arrow, the crowd took the wounded man to the Diego’s cloak and when the arrow was removed, he was completely cured.

That same image appears in our home, in the factories and fields of México, and most importantly in the hearts of her people.

Next: The Mexican Hacienda (and more)