Tag: Spain

Singapore III

Richard Barnes

This is the last of three posts on my recollections of visits to Singapore a decade, and more, ago. This last post shares my amateurish attempts to explain the “why” of Singapore. I’ve not given this much thought ever since returning from Asia years ago, but my notes remind me of my puzzlement in seeking to unlock the key(s) to Singapore’s unique success.

The usual platitudes did not do anything for me: tolerance, multiculturalism, strict enforcement of laws, educational excellence, and more. All those characteristics can be found across the world and throughout history; they come and go. And, for all we know, they could also go from Singapore.

What is (or was) the ground from which sprung such invigorating and nourishing fruit?

Attraction

If I had before me the offer of an all-expenses-paid visit to one place in the world, other than the United States and its territories, I’d be hard pressed to choose between England and Spain. As much as I like and am attracted to Singapore, my paternal and maternal roots are in England and Spain and I am ever-drawn to them, despite their decline and forsaking of their own histories.

My attraction to Singapore obviously lies in my childhood where I thrived in the Venezuelan tropical jungles, shorelines, and rivers. Singapore evokes memories that mesmerize me in ways that are difficult to express, let alone explain. And, yet, it is not so much the geography that pulls me to my parental roots; it is the history, the culture, the religion, the home. I am sure the reader understands, whether he grew up in a tropical jungle or in the Alaskan tundra.

So when I was in Singapore, I often thought of Venezuela. Very counterintuitive, I know. About the only thing the two countries have in common is the tropical setting — and not all of Venezuela is tropical!

But I grew up in the tropics and Singapore elicited thoughts of childhood from me.

Culture

Henry Van Til, the early Twentieth Century theologian, famously said, “Culture is religion externalized”. With that frame of reference I sought to better understand as I reflected on my visits to Singapore. 

Singapore’s ancient history does not help us much here. Although academics differ and debate the particulars, they generally agree that in the 14th Century Singapore was a trading port known as Temasek and under the influence of Greater India but also China. However, wars and banditry eventually depopulated the island and not much is known about these dark ages.

Sir Stamford Raffles saw the strategic importance of Singapore’s location and secured control thereof in 1819. This portentous event was not applauded by the British at the time as Raffles’s initiative brought England close to war with the Dutch, who claimed the island as within their sphere of influence.

The dispute was resolved and war avoided by the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 wherein England ceded certain areas to the Dutch and vice versa. Singapore became a wealthy free port for trade between Europe and Asia. 

A few data about Sir Raffles illustrates the kind of men who walked the earth at that time. He was born on a ship off the coast of Jamaica (the British were everywhere) in 1781. He was a visionary to whom we owe the founding of modern Singapore as a “free port” in 1819. He had great opposition and died in 1826, the day before his 45th birthday. Some say he would have remained unappreciated were it not for his faithful wife who, long after his death, worked hard to make his work known and to correct the slander and calumnies that had been hurled against him. Today Singapore honors him with street names like Raffles Avenue and Raffles Boulevard. There is also a Stamford street somewhere, not to mention the colonial Raffles Hotel.

The 19th Century was England’s world empire era when the sun never set for her. A seldom reported corollary to that era was the Christian missionary activity that followed the empire throughout the earth, including Singapore, which remained an English colony from 1819 to the 1950s. 

Raffles established schools and churches in the native languages and opened the doors to missionaries. He abolished forced labor and slavery and although he did not impose English as the native language, over time that did become in effect the prevalent business language of Singapore. Another “English” characteristic is its traffic: to this day cars are driven on the left.

Finally, Raffles respected and provided for religious freedom, which also permitted Christian schools to be founded throughout that part of the world, including Singapore. 

By the time of his death, Singapore had flourished greatly on British principles, most significantly, “a specific regulation in the constitution called for the multi-ethnic population to remain as they were; and no crimes were entirely based on racial principles.” A crime was defined as a criminal act, not as something one believed or professed.

So Singapore’s culture, although decidedly multi-ethnic, would not have developed that way without genuine Christian tolerance which has persisted well into the modern era.

Today

Although there are many churches in Singapore as well as other places of worship, most would describe the island as pluralistic and secular. Lee Kuan Yew, was the first and longest serving prime minister of Singapore (1959-1990), then Senior Minister (1990-2004), then Minister Mentor (2004-2011).  

After barely surviving the Japanese occupation, Lee was educated in Singapore and in England and gained a reputation as a “left-wing” troublemaker. He distrusted the British because of their failure to defend Singapore against the Japanese conquest. However, in the aftermath of left-wing riots and Communist betrayals, he also turned against the Left for the rest of his life.

I would describe Lee as extremely pragmatic, which led him to avoid throwing out the practical and worthwhile colonial heritage with the colonial bathwater. Under his leadership, Singapore became one of the “Asian Tigers” and still boasts one of the highest per capita incomes in the world. 

In a sense, Singapore reflects much of Lee’s cultural and philosophic makeup: pragmatic, practical, and secular. This is true despite a growing but still small Christian community. 

Some of its major laws proceed from the Christian heritage. For example, divorce requires grounds — there is no “no fault divorce” in Singapore (although there have been and are efforts to change that). As for care for the elderly, children are required to care for their parents when the need arises. Ironically, based on my limited conversations with Singaporeans, I don’t think they “need” such a law, as the family is very strong. Thus far.

But secularization is also very strong and, in the West, such has always worked to obscure if not erase the Christian heritage. For example, in several photos from the early 20th Century, the caption referred to “Western Women”. They were actually Christian missionaries. Yes, they were “Western”; however, the caption did not accurately portray who they were in reality and the labors they wrought in Singapore. Such dishonesty prevails in much of the West today.

When one visits the Chijmes, one sees a shopping mall; however, it was once a convent which for decades would accept baby girls brought there by Chinese mothers who were being pressured to either abort or abandon them. These mothers knew that the Christian missionaries would care for their infant daughters and give them a chance in life. This history, although very real, is hidden today.

The Fullerton properties belong to a company founded by Ng Teng Fong (1928-2010). A plaque in the Fullerton Building quotes his favorite Bible verse: “I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever (Psalm 23:6)”. At the time of his death, he was the richest man in Singapore. Yet he was known as a humble man who did much for his town. 

“He went on to develop innovative homes, build the first shopping malls in Orchard Road, and pioneer the development of vibrant waterfront retail and commercial centre en Tsim Sha Tsui East, Hong Kong. [His companies] have built more than 1,000 developments in Singapore, Hong Kong, China, and Malaysia, attesting to the entrepreneurial energy and vision of our founder. To God be the Glory.”

“He considered himself to be an ‘ordinary working man’ with a dream to satisfy a desire for homes among Singaporeans.” He was the eldest of 11 children. He and his wife had 8 children, very much “against the grain” in modern Singapore which for a time had a “2 is enough” public campaign.

Conclusion

Much more can be written about Singapore, including stories of incredible courage, heroism, and fidelity during the Japanese occupation. Also, the accomplishments of men such as Sir Thomas Raffles, Lee Kuan Yew, Ng Teng Fong, not to mention heroic nurses and soldiers during the Japanese occupation can keep one engrossed for hours and days.

I wish all the best for that beautiful city and island state. However, if she forgets or neglects or otherwise does not acknowledge the heritage that produced her success, she will see that her success will become as dust and ashes. I do not wish that for her; quite the contrary. So I do hope her sons and daughters are encouraged to learn that heritage and to keep it alive.

Boat Quay, circa 1900

Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles (1781-1826). He was not only a great visionary, he also loved the peoples of Southeast Asia

Lee Kwan Yew (1923-2015) — First and also longest serving prime minister of Singapore

The Fullerton Hotel, which used to be the Singapore Post Office. 

View of the Marina Bay Sands, Singapore. One of countless striking views of modern Singapore

A Nasty Business

Richard Barnes

As a matter of historical fact the legal systems of all the nations that are heirs to the Western legal tradition have been rooted in certain beliefs or postulates [which] have presupposed the validity of those beliefs. Today those beliefs or postulates — such as the structural integrity of law, its ongoingness, its religious roots, its transcendent qualities — are rapidly disappearing ….

The law is becoming more fragmented, more subjective, geared more to expediency and less to morality, concerned more with immediate consequences and less with consistency or continuity.

Thus the historical soil of the Western legal tradition is being washed away in the twentieth century, and the tradition itself is threatened with collapse. — Harold J. Berman, Law and Revolution, Harvard University Press (1983)

To destroy a people, you must first sever their roots. — Alexander Solzhenitsyn

Disrespecting, disregarding, dishonoring, distorting, or otherwise dismissing objective Truth in history, is a nasty business whose sequel is violence, tyranny, and death (cf, The Black Book of Communism, The Theme is Freedom, Earthly Powers, Robespierre, The Secret Six for historical proof; see 1984, Brave New World, The Hidden Strength, The Possessed, for philosophical reasoning behind the certainty of such a sequel).

In recent posts, we’ve documented very real consequences of godless philosophies and also the phenomenon of seeing the same atheistic ideologies foisted on and by our academics, our politics, our commerce, our medicine, and more as if we by some magic can escape the repercussions such beliefs have engendered throughout history on any people who have indulged in such foolishness.

This blog is entitled “The Pull of The Land” in agreement with Whittaker Chambers who said, “No land has a pull on a man as the land of his childhood.” That is certainly true for this writer. I yearn for a day, should the Lord grant it, in which I can once again see Venezuela a freer country and a happier people such as I remember in my childhood and youth. I also long to see this country — its 50 states and outlying territories — a freer and happier country such as I knew in yesteryear, a country which my own children and grandchildren can enjoy as I did.

But Chambers’ aphorism runs even beyond the land of one’s birth. I have been very fortunate in that I have been able to visit, and in some cases live in, lands on all sides of the globe. My heart holds a keen appreciation for such lands. However, eerily, should you offer me a free trip to only one of them, I’d be very hard pressed to choose between Spain and England. Why? Because they both are strongly linked to the place of my birth: an American mining camp in Venezuela. My forebears on my father’s side came to Massachussets from England, and from my mother’s side, to Venezuela from Spain.

The pull is very strong and as much as I’d like to see Singapore or Croatia or New Zealand or Iguazú or any other land once again, it is Spain or England I’d choose if my choices were limited to one or two.

The pull is very strong and as much as I’d like to see Singapore or Croatia or New Zealand or Iguazú or any other land once again, it is Spain or England I’d choose if my choices were limited to one or two.

It is that special love and appreciation which impels us to understand what has happened; to understand in order to be able to address the question, especially for the sake of our children and grandchildren.

We must return to Truth. Not my subjective truth or your subjective truth. Rather, the Objective Truth. 

And this is very difficult because we are all “men of our times” and our times are characterized by constant, endless propaganda which insists on living subjectively and questioning anyone or anything which claims to know the Truth. 

Regardless, we must press on as best we can, knowing that liberty cannot survive on subjectivity. It requires objective truth, which is the most powerful means we have at our disposal in order to push back on those who would transmogrify us into something we never agreed to or otherwise intended to be.

The late Professor Berman said that our legal systems “have been rooted in certain beliefs or postulates [which] have presupposed the validity of those beliefs.” 

As we see elites and mobs tear down statues of men we have historically admired, we must ask whether the presuppositions we formerly believed and acted upon were actually true. By their actions for two or three generations now the destroyers and their abetters in media, academia, entertainment, and more, have been forcefully asserting that all our presuppositions have been lies at best, evil at worst.

What is their basis for their insisting upon their infallibility? Are they speaking and writing truthfully?

A major hint that they speak lies is very easy to see: they work overtime to silence anyone who dares to challenge them on the basis of historical fact or Truth.

That should encourage us. It appears we still have a leg up on them.

But we will lose that advantage unless we get a firm grasp on Truth. 

In future posts, we hope to look at a few pivotal epochs or events in our history and seek to understand the deleterious effects the deliberate distortion of such episodes has had on the course of our history down to the present. 

Girona, Spain

English countryside

San Francisco in the 50s

San Francisco today

Caracas in the 50s

Caracas today

Mexico’s Turbulent History — Part IV: Colonial Mexico (conclusion)

Richard Barnes

By Mike Ashe

Spanish Immigration

Interestingly Spaniards did not emigrate to New Spain in great numbers; only about 20,000 made México their home.  In order to migrate Spaniards had to prove Roman Catholic purity; in other words, Jews and Muslims were excluded in the fear that they would taint New Spain’s religious order. In the late 16th century, Spain and Portugal had the same monarchy (Iberian union) and many Portuguese Jews that nominally converted to Roman Catholicism resulted in “Crypto-Jews” immigration to New Spain, although in small numbers.

As an aside, not until the 19th century were Non-Spanish Jews allowed to immigrate freely.  The Polanco section of México City where we lived was home to a large colony of Mexican Jews with European ancestry (Germans, French, British were the first to immigrate followed by Eastern European Jews at the end of the century).  The total Mexican Jewish Population is not large (about 50,000) but highly influential.

The Mexican Hacienda

The birth of the Hacienda economic system began immediately after the fall of the Aztec nation. When you think of the Hacienda you might picture courtyards, verandas, and sprawling land/acreage containing crops, cattle, and of course vaqueros on horseback.  There were of course many of them all over México, Texas, New México, and California.  Many of these still exist and in California they have been upscaled with the same colonial motif and occupied now by many of the wealthy Los Angelinos as well as throughout California.

The single most famous of all the Haciendas was awarded to Hernando Cortes which is now the State of Morelos. He built a fortress atop conquered Aztec ruins in Cuernavaca. Cuernavaca and surrounding areas (Valley of Morelos some 40 miles south of México City at an elevation of about 5,000 ft) were prized rich farm land with the most appealing climate of all of México.

My family would make many day trips to Cuernavaca, Cocoyoc, and other resorts in the area. The area at that time had some very nice swimming pools with very high platforms for diving. My two bothers and I would jump off them (never diving too high) for hours. In those days visiting these resorts was not too expensive and some did not charge to use their facilities, so we made the trip often.

These are all treasurers for the enjoyment of the Mexican people.

The Other Colonial Mexican Haciendas

Cortes gifted his soldiers with land grants along with tribute from the conquered indigenous people as forced labor. Much like the medieval feudal systems in Europe.

The term Hacienda included Silver Mines in Zacatecas and surrounding areas in the north, Cattle Ranches, farms, sugar plantations, textile mills, and factories. Most of the hacienda owners did not live in the haciendas but visited from their places in the cities. In modern México, this practice is very much the same.

In the Haciendas system most of the commerce was designed for export to Spain, including sugar, cocoa, silver, gold, textiles.  Hernando Cortes was the first to introduce domestic animals (cattle, goats, sheep) to México. He also introduced European edible plants to the New World, although some scholars credit this to Christopher Columbus’ second voyage.

The Spanish influence on North American culture included the raising of cattle and the Vaqueros (cowboys) with silver spurs and wide brim sombreros to supply mining towns and export the hides to Spain. Some of these family Hacienda were huge, with over 11 million acres.

Hacienda life attracted many Spanish Settlers which in some cases resulted in an increase in misery and death for the indigenous people. The church did champion the cause of the downtrodden and the crown introduced new laws that would grant freedom to them. These laws were not received well by the New World Spaniard’s and change was slow in coming but it did come eventually. 

[As explained by Robert Wayne Powell in Tree of Hate, part of the problem was that well-intentioned royal decrees were promulgated on the basis of Lascasian reports which oftentimes did not reflect realities on the ground and did not request nor consider input from the Spaniards working the lands in the New World — RMB]

Spanish Crown’s plan to extend Borders.

Spain’s plan was to 1) increase her own wealth and influence in México and 2) to promote Catholicism through conversion of the indigenous peoples. The agencies/systems included:

The Presidios or military garrisons. In Mexico they were used in the desert frontier to control rebellious indigenous tribes. The warriors were captured and enslaved in the presidios. The present-day Northern States included Baja California Sur, Nuevo Leon, Sonora, Durango, Chihuahua, and Coahuila.

They also extended as far as California to include San Diego, Monterey, San Francisco and Santa Barbara.  Many in Florida including Presidio San Miguel de Panzacola located in present-day downtown Pensacola.  Current-day states included South Carolina, Georgia. Louisiana, Texas, New México, and Arizona.

[For those interested in the Presidio system and its truly amazing successes — far more successful than the post-Civil War North American forts system– I recommend Philip Wayne Powell’s Mexico’s Miguel Caldera. His work is objective and shows that Spain’s efforts in Mexico were often highly laudable — RMB]

Pueblos, were civilian towns sometimes clustered around presidios for protection in the north.

Missions Roman Catholic priests came to Mexico to spread the word of Jesus Christ and to convert the indigenous people. Early missionaries won over the people and championed their cause. They learned the native languages and helped record native history. The indigenous peopled learned Latin so well that they taught it to the Spanish settlers. The Florentine Codes were compiled which enabled the writing of Nahuatl using the Roman alphabet. This later served to preserve the history of Mesoamerica.

Spanish Architecture

Stunning is the only way to describe it and mostly still standing.

Spanish Inquisition

The friars were replaced by materialistic clergy and many of the efforts by Zumarraga (Mexico’s first bishop) were overturned.  The new clergy were dependent on settlers and not the church, which became a secular institution.  The Spanish Inquisition was a dark chapter in Spanish rule in Spain and in New Spain. The inquisition lasted for 250 years and claimed about 50 people (many Crypto-Jews) who were burned at the stake. The Inquisition was used in the later years of Spanish rule to stamp down political dissent.

Independence from Spain is brewing

A forerunner of the fight for Independence from Spain was William Lamport, an Irish nobleman. He was one of the inspirations for Zorro and was arrested and spent 17 years in prison for instigating rebellion against the crown.

Also contributing to the unrest against Spain were the religious disputes against the Jesuits who had accumulated substantial wealth in Mexico. In 1804 the crown decreed that church’s funds for charitable works were taken by the state and the Jesuits expelled. This was a severe blow to the poor of Mexico who were dependent on credit and charity in bad times.

A caste system existed in Mexico at the end of the 18th Century which was enforced by law.

On top were the white rulers, numbering about 1 million. The top of that group were the Spanish from Spain most of them returned to Spain post-Independence.

Next in the hierarchy were the Spanish born in Mexico. They could not hold royal office. Only whites were allowed to wear fine silk cloths and gentlemen were called caballeros and the ladies damas.

The rest or majority were of mixed races.

The people of Mexico like those of the 13 North American colonies were exploited by Spain and England. Many of the colonists from both wanted to make their wealth and return to Europe.

It’s interesting that the China trade arrived from the Philippines that included silks, ceramics, tea, and spices which arrived in Acapulco and were transported across Mexico to Vera Cruz and sent to Spain along with the Silver from mines in the North.

It’s also interesting that pirates preyed on shipments leaving Vera Cruz bound with these rich cargos.

In 1808 Spain was invaded by Napoleon which forced the abdication of King Ferdinand in favor of Napoleon’s brother Joseph Bonaparte. This created a split in Mexico with some supporting Ferdinand and others wanting independence from Spain. A Jesuit priest, Miguel Hidalgo Costilla, in 1803 assumed the duties of parish priest in Dolores in present-day Dolores Hidalgo in Guanajuato. He was a passionate supporter of independence.

Independence from Spain Ends Colonial Rule

On September 16, 1810 (celebrated today as Mexican Independence Day) father Hidalgo rang the church bells to call his parishioners to an announcement of revolution against the Spanish, racial equality, and redistribution of land. It became the Grito de Dolores. His rebellion was suppressed outside of Guadalajara and Hidalgo fled north, was later captured, and shot by firing squad as a rebel.

Jose Morelos y Pavon, also a parish priest turned military leader, fought for independence until he was captured and executed in 1815 (the now State of Morelos bears his name). Another priest, Mariano Matamoros, became one of Morelos’ generals and was also captured and executed in 1814. The seed however was sown by these priests and in 1821 Augustin de Iturbide led troops into Mexico City and declared the country’s independence.

The treaty of Cordoba established Mexico as an independent constitutional monarchy under Augustin de Iturbide.  This was accepted by the Spanish viceroy Juan de O’Donnju.

Other noteworthy revolutionary leaders included Vicente Guerrero, Juan Almonte, Josepha Ortiz de Dominguez, Guadalupe Victoria (First President of Mexico) Ignacio Lopez Rayon, Juana Marian Guadalupe Perez Pavon, Nichols Bravo, Leona Vicario.

Next: Independence

Palace of Cortés in Cuernavaca, Mexico, built circa 1523-1528: the oldest colonial-era civil structure in the continental Americas.
Iglesia Nuestra Señora de Remedios, built circa 1575
Santa Prisca in Taxco, Mexico, built in the mid 18th century, considered one of the best examples of the Mexico baroque style
The churrigueresque style cathedral in the silver town of Zacatecas, Mexico. First built in 1568, with several construction projects over the following two centuries culminating in a work of integration between 1731 and 1752. Not fully completed until 1904.
Mexico City National Cathedral, built in sections between 1573 and 1813.
Basilica de Guadalupe in north Mexico City. The shrine was built in 1709; structure completed in 1974
Castillo de Chapultepec, Mexico City, built 1785-1786, with structural changes over the next two centuries.
Las Mañanitas Gardens, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
Las Mañanitas Gardens, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico

Mexico’s Turbulent History — Part III: Colonial Mexico

Richard Barnes

This is the third in a series of posts by my friend, Mike Ashe, who has lived in and visited Mexico and has a love and appreciation for that great country.

Mexico has much in common with all of Latin America, not least of which is her Spanish heritage. Therefore, in reviewing her history, one can glean understanding regarding Venezuela as well.

And, as you will see in some of Mike’s commentary, she has much in common with us and Europe in her secular rush to gender ideology, critical race theory, anti-Christianity, and more.

Thank you again, Mike.

By Mike Ashe

Prologue

Rewriting, canceling and ignoring historical era norms to promote an ideology has always been a reality throughout history and continues now in 21st century México.  From the beginning of Colonial Time there has been a constant battle between Secularism and Catholicism. In 1857 the Mexican Constitution established human rights but still did not resolve the continuing conflict.

Recently and without merit, the now President of México, Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador (AMLO) asked the Spanish Government and Pope Francis to apologize to the indigenous Mexicans for wrongs committed during the Spanish conquest some 500 years ago.  

It is absurd that this irresponsible grievance ideology continues to deflect the lack of vision and governing incompetence of today’s politicians like AMLO.  The truth is that modern México, would not be possible without New Spain (with all its good and bad).

AMLO has always been a far left secular demagogue introducing his own version of his North America’s neighbor’s “WOKENESS”. But this attack on Spain and The Catholic Church is nothing new in Mexican politics especially when attempting to deflect blame for his and other’s failed presidencies/governances. 

AMLO has always been an admirer of the Castro brothers and Che and has developed a warm relationship with the current Cuban dictator Miguel-Diaz-Canel.  In 2020 Guadalajara’s Cardinal Juan Sandoval Iñiguez published on his website that the “atheist” Mexican government has begun to take her people down a slippery slope to communism. He backed up his claim by citing how AMLO is assuming a dictatorial role, promoting gender ideology over family values, support for abortion among others.

Roman Catholicism in México, (Counterweight to the Secular Theology, started in 1521 and continues today).  In the 1926-29-Cristero Civil War — a rebellion launched by Marxist President Plutarco Elias Calles by executive decree to eliminate the power of the Catholic Church and repress religious freedom. It was bloody: 60,000 Mexican troops and 30,000 Cristeros plus many more civilians lost their lives.  In 2000 the Vatican conferred sainthood to 20 priests and 3 laymen.

The First 100 Years

First, let us not forget that Tenochtitlan was an elegant island city with magnificent twin snowcapped Volcanos on the horizon. The altiplano climate at 5,000-7000 ft above sea level was mild year-round with an abundance of water and food for its people. Tenochtitlan was a huge city with public institutions, a system of government, schools, and public services to rival the cities of Europe at that time. This was truly an enchanted part of the world as the 16th Century began. The Spaniards that first entered the Valley of México, were spellbound by its beauty. 

As for the Aztec leader Montezuma the Spaniards arrival meant war and ultimately defeat for him and his people. There are many accounts of what transpired then, suffice it to say that the conquest was completed in 1524. 

Colonial México, began when the conquering Spaniards renamed Tenochtitlan México, City.  Tenochtitlan was completely destroyed and rebuilt as Nueva Espana (New Spain) and lasted almost 300 years. We will not get into the reconstruction here but it was extensive and lasted for centuries. Hernando Cortes as Governor moved quickly, bringing the first stocks of cattle, sheep, goats, and European vegetables and encouraging his men to marry native women, beginning the first Mestizo race. 

In the 1540’s most of the Yucatan was conquered and the city of Merida was founded in 1542. The Mayan empire did not fall until the end of the century.  Silver finds in Zacatecas prompted the need to conquer the north sending missionaries into modern day Texas, New México, Arizona, California, Utah, and Colorado.

The destruction was not limited to Tenochtitlan; it meant the almost complete depopulation of the Aztec empire or 10-12 million (Pre-Conquest) with only a million survivors primarily due to the European Small Pox and Measles epidemics (to which the indigenous people had no immunity). The plagues along with famine lasted till the mid-17th century. 

Solving a Labor Shortage

The labor shortage was rectified by the importation of African Slaves and Asians, practically equivalent to slaves.

Blacks were imported as slaves early in the 1520’s and slavery lasted throughout the 300 years of colonial rule bringing in some 200,000 slaves (as a frame of reference, a total of 450,000 arrived in the US. However both the US and Mexico pale against Brazil, which received over 4,900,000 African slaves).

Slaves were used in the silver mines of Zacatecas, Taxco, Guanajuato, and Pachuca; textile factories in Puebla and Oaxaca; and in households everywhere. The knowledge about México’s Africans Slavery is limited; even today most think that Blacks arrived in México, as runaways from North America and Cuba. Now, African descendants identify as Mexican, not Africans. It’s amazing that their spirits were never broken and that there is little to no resentment among their descendants.

As an aside — the heritage of Mexican Blacks includes a rebellion of escaped slaves in the Vera Cruz region lead by Gaspar Yanga (a reported prince from Gabon Africa) between 1570-1609. Yanga’s decades long resistance was in the vicinity of Mount Orizaba the highest mountain in Mexico at 18,491 ft (third highest in North America after Denali and Logan). In 1631 after many bloody battles Yanga and the Spanish Viceroy Pacheco negotiated a settlement that recognized an autonomous region for the African community called San Lorenzo de los Negros. Later renamed in 1932 Gaspar Yanga in horror or the liberator.  Slavery was abolished in Mexico in 1829.

Another little-known slave importation included about 8,000 Asians imported into México on Portuguese Galleons from the Philippines/South East Asia, categorized as Chinos to also bolster the labor shortage.  They were later treated the same as the indigenous, or vassels of the Spanish Crown after 1672 and not held as property.

As an aside-the massacre of Chinos occurred during the Mexican Revolution mostly by Pancho Villa in the North. The Asians were marched off the largest building in Ciudad Chihuahua and thrown down abandoned mineshafts.  Of course, historians blame it as a colonial leftover!

The most important part of the colonial period was the introduction of Roman Catholicism in new Spain.

As New Spain was born, old Spain became challenged with the prospects of governing a land and population that was far greater than their own and two months away by sea to reach. To their credit, they appointed a Viceroy to oversee the Territories from California to Panama, Caribbean Islands, and the Philippines (there were total of 62 viceroys).  They also setup a high court including Nuno de Guzman one of three judges in México, with disastrous results for the indigenous population.

During the same time the first bishop of México, Juan de Zumarraga entered México, in 1527 and was enraged by Guzman’s mistreatment of the poor indigenous people and the judges corruption.  Guzman was savage in his treatment of the people of México, he was returned to Spain and put under house arrest.  His replacement proved to be a man of high quality and corrected many of the abuses. 

The bishop and the Spanish friars were viewed by the people as their allies and all of México, was converted to the Catholic faith. 

Apparitions of Our Lady of Guadalupe (It’s reported occurrence is perhaps the most consequential in Mexican History)

According to the account of the apparition written in the Nahuatl language The Virgin Mary appeared to Juan Diego (an indigenous Chichimec peasant) four times and once to his uncle Juan Bernardino. 

The first apparition occurred in the morning of 9 December 1531 Juan Diego experienced a vision of a young woman on the Hill of Tepeyac and speaking in the Nahuatl language identified herself as the mother of the true deity. She asked that a church be erected at the site in her honor.

Diego reported the apparition to the Archbishop Juan de Zumaraga. The bishop, not unexpectedly, did not believe.  Later that same day (the second apparition) Our Lady asked Diego to keep insisting.

The following day on the 10th Diego spoke to the archbishop the second time. This time the bishop asked for a sign to prove her identity.

Later that day Diego returned to Tepeyac (the third apparition occurred) reporting the archbishop’s request for a sign, to which she agreed.

On the 11th of December Juan Diego’s uncle became ill which required that he attend to him.  Early the next day his uncle’s conditioned had worsened and on his death bed Diego took his uncle to a priest to hear his last confession.

Ashamed that he had been tardy in meeting with the Virgin, Diego chose another route bypassing Tepeyac. En route the virgin intercepted him (fourth apparition) asking him where he was going. Diego explained his situation and the virgin asked him “No estoy yo aguí, que soy tu madre?”  (Am I not here? I who am your mother?)  This is the most important phrase in Mexican History and is inscribed above the entrance to the Basilica de Guadalupe.

The Virgin then directed Juan Diego to gather roses on the summit of Tepeyac which due to the winter was normally barren, he obeyed and found Castilian roses not native to México, but common in Spain (special miraculous significance).  The Virgin arranged the flowers in Juan Diego’s cloak and when he opened the cloak later that day before the Archbishop Zumaraga the flowers fell to the floor revealing on the cloak fabric the Virgin of Guadalupe.

Also, during the fourth appearance the Virgin Mary told Diego that his uncle was fully recovered.  On December 13th the virgin also appeared to Diego’s uncle Juan Bernadino (the fifth apparition) who pleaded for his life. She instructed the uncle to inform the archbishop of his miraculous cure.   A second miracle was performed when a man was mortally wounded on the neck by an arrow, the crowd took the wounded man to the Diego’s cloak and when the arrow was removed, he was completely cured.

That same image appears in our home, in the factories and fields of México, and most importantly in the hearts of her people.

Next: The Mexican Hacienda (and more)

This is a family heirloom. My mother bought this painting in a gallery in Mexico City and is our family treasure. The campesino in the painting is fondly referred to as Uncle/Tío Pedro, as a tribute to the family’s Mexican roots — Mike Ashe
Pictorial view of Mexico City shortly after the conquest of the Aztecs

Philip Wayne Powell had a scholar’s understanding of Mexico’s history as well as deep personal affection for it. In his great book, Mexico’s Miguel Caldera (pictured above) he tells of the clash between “Savagery and Civilization” and eloquently concludes, the peace that emerged to form a Mexican society was the work of men such as Caldera. If you have an interest in Mexico and in the contrast between Spain’s approach to the Indian problem and ours, you will be rewarded by reading Powell — RMB
Very few know about Mexico’s war against Christianity alluded to by Mike above. A recent film that addressed it is For Greater Glory, released in 2012 — RMB
A great John Ford film, though unsurprisingly under appreciated, is the 1947 adaptation of Graham Green’s The Power and the Glory, whose backdrop is Mexico’s fanatical persecution of Christianity in the early 20th century. The movie’s title is The Fugitive — RMB

Lullaby

Richard Barnes

As a child in El Pao I was sometimes teased (accused?) for being more American than Venezuelan. Looking back, I can grant the criticism in that I might have been too carelessly effusive in my praise of United States history while too reticent in my acknowledgment of Venezuela’s.

However, I must plead, not as an excuse but as a mitigating factor, that my Spanish instructors did not help me much in this, given their disdain for Spain’s actions and inactions in the Americas in general and in Venezuela in particular.

I now understand that the standard approach to Latin American history – at least in my day – did not exactly promote a love and appreciation for our heritage. If Spain was so evil and if it represented “500 years of atrocities”, then how am I, as a child, to value, let alone love the society or culture that they bequeathed to us?

As readers of this blog have seen, Spain’s contribution to the Americas was truly a wonder: 500 years of high culture, including the oldest cathedrals, universities, opera houses, and more in the western hemisphere, let alone the teaching and training of a language and system of law that were truly a marvel of accomplishment in their time. 

We’ve written about that elsewhere (for example, see here and here) and will continue doing so.

I begin this post with the above because I do not want you to think I do not appreciate my years in Georgia, Puerto Rico, Texas, and other parts of the world where I have been blessed to have lived or otherwise spent time and met good and fine friends. I do appreciate them; very much so. 

For now, however, as Christmas approaches, my thoughts inevitably wander back to our few short years in Kalamazoo, Michigan. Whenever I count my blessings, I think of my parents and grandparents and the life and heritage they bequeathed me. 

I think of El Pao and childhood friends.

And I always think of Kalamazoo.

I vividly recall flying to that town for the first time in the early summer of 1984. As the plane approached and the green fields and lakes – so many lakes! – came into view, my heart was powerfully drawn to that small midwestern city that I had hardly ever heard about (except in a Glenn Miller song).

The folks I met, my interactions with clerks, executives, factory workers, children, immediately brought El Pao to my mind. The Midwest became more than a geographical touchpoint: it immediately became a part of me … because it was always a part of me, only I didn’t know it. The ready friendship and transparency of our neighbors, church brethren, professional colleagues, mechanics, you-name-it, was a throwback to my childhood in El Pao and purlieus. It was coming home to a home you did not know you had. 

When it came time to leave, in late 1988, we kept coming back to visit, as one would come see parents or siblings whenever possible. Friendships made then, continue to be friendships now. Our most recent visit was in 2015; and I do hope it won’t be our last.

We used to say, “You can take the man out of Arthur Andersen but you cannot take Arthur Andersen out of the man.” 

I can also say, “You can take the man out of Kalamazoo but you cannot take Kalamazoo out of the man.”

We’d play Christmas music – classical, hymns, popular – beginning late November and well into January. One little hymn has persistently remained in my memory: Lullaby (Music: J. Frederick Keel, English composer of Elizabethan songs; Lyrics: Alfred Noyes, English poet).

The first time I heard it, the sun had disappeared over the horizon, light snowflakes mysteriously reflected moonlight as they drifted silently onto the ground and forest preserve just beyond our apartment. The hymn is eerily perfect for a quiet Christmastime night.

And especially if you have a baby or young child in your home.

Although the hymn says nothing about snow, I cannot help but think of it as I listen to Lullaby whether in Georgia, Texas, or even in Puerto Rico. But what it evokes most in me are thoughts of a Babe in a manger, Christmas, Kalamazoo winter, and our young home.

One day, in the El Pao playgrounds, my childhood friends were again teasing me about America. In reactionary mode, I taunted my friend, Lizbeth, “Well, look at you! You are more German than Venezuelan!” 

All became quiet, as she calmly replied, “I love Germany.”

I learned from her. That should have been my reply too, and henceforth, it was: “I love America.” 

And I loved Kalamazoo, and am grateful for my years there and for our friends there.

Lullaby (circa 1925)

Sleep little Baby I love Thee, I love Thee
Sleep Little King, I am bending above Thee
How shall I know what to sing?
How shall I know what to sing
Here are my arms as I swing Thee to sleep?
Hushaby Low,
Rockaby so,
Hushaby Low.
Kings may have wonderful jewels to bring
Mother has only a kiss for her King
Only a kiss for her King.
Why should my singing so make me to weep?
Only I know that I love Thee
Only I know that I love Thee
Love Thee my little one,
Love Thee my little one,
Sleep! Hushaby low,
Rockaby so, Hushaby low.